As of late I've been reading about the Nestorian
Christian (Jingjiao 景教)
community that thrived in China from the early seventh to mid-ninth
century. Their church was, it seems, largely responsible for
transmitting Hellenistic astrology and even some Near Eastern occult
practices into China, hence my present interest. Their active influence in Chinese religious
history during this period is not always recognized, especially in
Buddhist Studies. There are several documents from their movement
preserved in Chinese, in addition to two steles that were unearthed
in Chang'an and Luoyang, thus we know a fair amount about their
church.
Nestorianism
as
a Christian movement initially
developed in the fifth century starting from Nestorios (c.381–c.451),
who was bishop of Constantinople between
428–431.
The primary doctrine of Nestorianism is that Christ was comprised of
two separate persons, one human and one divine. This was rejected as
heretical by their opponents. The Nestorian bishops were condemned at
the Council of Ephesus in 431. The
result was an eastward spread of the Nestorian movement. It
eventually spread all across the Near East and Central Asia before
reaching China in the year 635 when a mission led by
Aluoben 阿羅夲
(also rendered as 阿羅本)
arrived in the capital Chang’an 長安.
His name in Chinese might have been a transliteration of 'Abraham'.
This mission occurred towards the final years of the Sassanian
dynasty (224–650), and was shortly after the first Arab invasions
of Iran starting in 633.1
This leads me to wonder if these early Christians in China might have
been refugees.
By the late eighth century the Nestorian Christian
community was thriving in China. We know this from a famous stele
that was erected in the year 781, often called the 'Nestorian Stele'
大秦景教流行中國碑.
The stele inscription describes the first Christian mission to China,
some basic Christian doctrines and the names of clergymen in Chinese
with parallel Syriac and Persian names written in Syriac script. It
interestingly also provides dates according to the Chinese, Greek and
Persian calendars. The text is composed in very elegant literary
Chinese and was clearly written with elites in mind judging from its
grammar and use of refined vocabulary.
The inscription on the stele was composed by a certain
cleric named Adam 景淨
from Daqin-si 大秦寺.
In one Buddhist source, to which we will return shortly, Adam is
also identified as a 'Persian monk' 波斯僧.2
'Daqin-si' referred to a Nestorian Christian church, but in this case refers to the one in Chang'an. Normally,
Buddhist monasteries are indicated by the suffix -si 寺 (temple), but throughout the Tang dynasty (618–907), Nestorian churches were
also designated with this suffix. There were such churches in both
capitals (Chang'an and Luoyang). They were originally called 'Persian
temples' 波斯寺
due to the original
missionaries in 635 having come from Persia, though in 745 an
imperial edict had them renamed to Daqin-si. The following edict
records this.
天寶四載九月詔曰：波斯經教，出自大秦，傳習而來，久行中國。爰初建寺，因以為名，將欲示人。必修其本。其兩京波斯寺，宜改為大秦寺。天下諸府郡置者，亦準此。
In lunar month nine of year four [745] in reign era
Tianbao the following edict was issued. The scriptural teachings of
Persia came from Daqin, and long have they been transmitted in China.
They were named [as Persian temples] when they were first built so as
to show people [their origin]. It is necessary to revise their
origin. The Persian temples in the two capitals should be renamed to
'Daqin temples'. All prefectures and counties in which [such temples]
are present will also follow suit.3
The 'Daqin' 大秦
('Great Qin') in the name of the
church is interesting as this term originally referred to the Roman
empire in the early centuries CE, or more specifically its eastern
territories, in particular Alexandria. In the eighth century,
however, it does not appear to refer to the Byzantine empire, but
rather to the Levant in general. The evidence to support this
assertion is actually found in the stele from 781 as it provides the
following hint:
神天宣慶，室女誕聖於大秦；㬌宿告祥，波斯覩耀以来貢。
The angel [Gabriel] proclaimed good tidings. The Virgin
gave birth to the Sage in Daqin. The luminous asterism indicated a
portent. The Persians witnessed the brilliance and came to pay
tribute.
This of course is referring to the birth of Jesus Christ
in Bethlehem. In light of this and the otherwise nebulous
understanding of Daqin as being “west of the Western sea (i.e.,
the Caspian Sea),” I am convinced that 'Daqin' refers to the
general geographic region of the Levant. It seems that Nestorians
arriving in China all identified as either from Persia or Daqin,
which is instructive since these territories were under the rule of
the caliphates. They did not, so far as I know, identify as coming
from Arabia. The word for Arabia in Chinese in this period was Dashi
大食,
its Middle Chinese pronunciation reconstructed as dâiᶜ dźjək
(Schuessler IPA). This is most certainly derived from Middle Persian
word tāzīk / tāzīg,
'Arab'.4
One might imagine Nestorian Christians in China identifying
their ethnicity as Syrian, Persian or Sogdian, but never Arab even
when they had been born under a caliphate.
Incidentally, later on 'Daqin' was changed to 'Fulin'
拂菻.
In Middle Chinese this is reconstructed as pʰjuət *ljəmᴮ
(Schuessler IPA). This appears to be a transliteration of an Iranian
pronunciation of 'Rome', such Sogdian frwn and brwn, or
Middle Persian hrōm. How do we know that this refers to
Byzantium specifically? The New History of the Tang 新唐書,
the revised history of the Tang dynasty compiled in 1060, states the
following.
拂菻，古大秦也，居西海上，一曰海西國。去京師四萬里，在苫西，北直突厥可薩部，西瀕海，有遲散城，東南接波斯。
Fulin in former times was Daqin. It is located on the
western sea. One [account] calls it the 'Country on the Western Sea'.
It is forty-thousand li from
the capital [of Chang'an]. It is west of *Shan. To the north
it meets the Turkish Khanate. To the west it approaches the sea,
where there is *Alexandria.5 To the southeast it meets Persia.
The
name Shan 苫
here most likely refers to
Damascus. Its Middle-Chinese pronunciation is reconstructed as syem
(Baxter-Sagart 2011). This seems to correspond to al-Shām, the
Arabic name for Syria. A Chinese writer named Du Huan 杜環
travelled to the Abbasid Caliphate
and returned to China in 762. His travelogue, the Jingxing ji
經行記,
states that “the country of *Shan is on the western frontier of the
Arab [state]” (苫國在大食西界).
 |
| The Byzantine Empire c. 867 |
This
change in name from Daqin to Fulin appears to reflect the ongoing
loss of territory of the Byzantium empire. The Levant in the ninth
century was no longer under the control of Byzantium state. Chinese
scholars only possessed an approximate conception of the Near East's
political and physical geography, which helps to explain why
Alexandria is erroneously placed at its western side. Nevertheless,
it is quite clear that Fulin is a transliteration of an Iranian
pronunciation of 'Rome'. Nestorians initially identified themselves
as having come from Persia. Later they identified as hailing from
'Daqin', a general term for the Levant, likely as a result of the
demise of the Sassanian state by the mid-seventh century. Finally, at
some point in the ninth century it seems that 'Daqin' was understood
to be the former territories of 'Rome' occupied by the Arabs.
Returning back to Nestorianism in China, I want to
discuss its interaction with Buddhism. There is an account of the
aforementioned clergyman Adam translating a Buddhist text with the
Buddhist monk Prajñā 般若.
請譯佛經。乃與大秦寺波斯僧景淨，依胡本六波羅蜜經譯成七卷。時為般若不閑胡語，復未解唐言，景淨不識梵文，復未明釋教。雖稱傳譯未獲半珠。...
察其所譯理昧詞疎。且夫，釋氏伽藍，大秦僧寺，居止既別，行法全乖。景淨應傳彌尸訶教，沙門釋子弘闡佛經，欲使教法區分，人無濫涉。
They requested he [Prajñā] translate Buddhist
scriptures. Together with the Persian monk Adam of Daqin-si, he translated the *[Mahāyāna-naya-]ṣaṭ-pāramitā-sūtra
in seven fascicles based on a Sogdian edition. At the time Prajñā
did not understand Sogdian or Chinese, while Adam understood neither Sanskrit
nor Buddhism. Although they were said to have translated it, they had
yet to obtain the half-pearls [i.e., ascertain the meaning]. ... Upon
investigating what had been translated, the reasoning was found to be
unclear and the vocabulary off. The Buddhist monastery and Daqin
church were to keep their residences separate and their practices
entirely apart. Adam should transmit the teachings of the Messiah,
while Buddhists shall propagate Buddhist scriptures, so as to keep
the doctrines separate, and the peoples from excessive
intermingling.6
This accounts suggests to me that while the state
authorities respected both religions, they desired to keep them
separate. In light of the elegant Chinese that Adam composed for the
stele of 781, we can infer that he was quite learned in the Chinese
classics, and therefore likely mingled with aristocrats in the
capital. In such circles eminent Buddhist monks and Daoist priests
were also active, thus there were many opportunities for elite religious
thinkers to interact.
Another interesting fact about Nestorianism in China is
that their clerics are on record as having practiced medicine in
China. As to the type of medicine they practiced, I have reason to
believe that it was actually Greek. Returning to the travelogue by Du
Huan, he gives the following interesting account.
其大秦善醫眼及痢，或未病先見，或開腦出蟲。
The Daqin are adept in treating eyes and dysentery. Some
can foresee illness before symptoms emerge. Some can perform
trephinations
and remove parasites.
The
New History of the Tang also mentions such medical practices
in Byzantium.
有善醫能開腦出蟲以愈目眚。
There are skilled physicians capable of performing
trephinations
and removing parasites to heal eye diseases.
Cranial
surgery of this type was well known in ancient Greek medicine. As
Arani and others note, “Cranial trepanation was first recorded by
Hippocrates (460–355 BC).”7
This surgery was apparently performed in China as early as the late
years of Emperor Gaozong 高宗
(r.
649 – 27 December 683). There
is a story recorded in the Old
Book of Tang
舊唐書,
compiled in 945, and elsewhere that a cranial operation was performed on
Gaozong.
上苦頭重不可忍，侍醫秦鳴鶴曰：「刺頭微出血，可愈。」天后帷中言曰：「此可斬，欲刺血於人主首耶！」上曰：「吾苦頭重，出血未必不佳。」即刺百會，上曰：「吾眼明矣。」
The
Emperor was suffering intolerable headaches. His retainer physician
Qin Minghe said, “It could be healed by piercing the head and
drawing a bit of blood.” The Empress [Wu Zetian] behind a screen
said, “He should be beheaded, wanting to draw blood from the leader
of men!” The Emperor said, “My headaches are severe. Drawing
blood is not necessarily bad.” The crown of the skull was pierced.
The Emperor said, “My eyes has cleared up!”
The
name Qin Minghe 秦鳴鶴
here
possibly indicates a foreigner. The surname Qin could be derived from
Daqin and in light of the surgery he performed he was likely from
abroad. Huang (2002) and others attempt to identify him as an
immigrant Nestorian clergyman.8
Although this is not certain, there are still other accounts that
confirms the presence of Nestorian physicians in Tang China. In year
28 of reign era Kaiyuan 開元
(740),
the clergyman Chongyi 僧崇一
healed
the younger brother of Emperor Xuanzong 玄宗
(r.
712–756).9
A report by Li Deyu 李德裕
(787–849) states that a certain Daqin cleric proficient in optometry (醫眼大秦僧一人)
was present in Chengdu 成都
at
one point.10
It
is therefore clear that Nestorian clergyman did in fact practice
medicine in China during the Tang dynasty, and moreover they most
likely brought with them Greek medical techniques. They also
introduced other foreign sciences and arts, such as astronomy and
astrology. In 1980 in Xi'an the tombstone of a court astronomer was
discovered. His name was Li Su 李素
(743–817)
and he is identified as a Persian. It seems that he was a Christian
clergyman from the community of Persians resident in Guangzhou.
Sometime between 766–779 he was summoned to the court to work in
the bureau of astronomy. Later his 'courtesy name' 字
of
Wen Zhen 文貞
alongside
the corresponding name 'Luka' in Syriac appears on the list of
Christian clergymen on the stele of 781.11
Although not immediately clear from his biographical information, he
likely practiced Hellenistic astronomy in light of his ethnic and
religious backgrounds. Earlier 'foreign' court astronomers, such as
Gautama Siddhārtha, employed and even translated Indian astronomy.
Li Su as a replacement for Gautama Siddhārtha was likely functioning
as a 'second opinion' at court in matters related to astronomy and
calendrical science, providing a perspective based on foreign methods.
Nestorian
clergymen clearly played important roles throughout the Tang dynasty.
They were eliminated in China as an institution and religion in 845 when
Emperor Wuzong 武宗
(840–846),
a Daoist zealot, initiated a purge of foreign religions.
Buddhism, Manichaeism and Christianity were, at least in the capital
region, rapidly dismantled and their assets liquidated. Buddhist
sangha members were defrocked, while Manichean priests were put to
death.12
Christianity was to a large part eliminated as a major religion in
China until several centuries later under the Mongols.
2《大唐貞元續開元釋教錄》卷1：「大秦寺波斯僧景淨」(CBETA,
T55, no. 2156, p. 756, a20-21)
3 This
is reported in fasc. 49 of the Tang huiyao 唐會要.
4 There
were many ethnically Iranian persons in Tang China, including those
identifying themselves as Persians, but also Sogdians and Bukharans.
5 Chisan
遲散 here
refers to Alexandria. This is geographically problematic, but the
Chinese understanding of the Near East was pieced together from
multiple, often chronologically disparate, sources. See Yu Taishan,
"China and the Ancient Mediterranean World: A Survey of Ancient
Chinese Sources," Sino-Platonic Papers 242 (2013): 34.
http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp242_china_mediterranean.pdf
6《貞元新定釋教目錄》卷17
. CBETA, T55, no. 2157, p. 892, a7-15.
8 Huang
Lanlan 黃蘭蘭, “Tangdai
Qin Minghe wei jingyi kao” 唐代秦鳴鶴為景醫考,
Zhongshan Daxue xuebao 中山大學學報
42, no. 5 (2002): 61–67.
9 Jiu
Tang shu 舊唐書 (fasc.
95).
10 See
fasc. 703 of the Quan Tang wen 全唐文.
11 Rong
Xinjiang 榮新江, “Yi ge
shi Tangchao de Bosi Jingjiao jiazu” 一個仕唐朝的波斯景教家族,
in Zhonggu Zhongguo yu wailai wenming 中古中國與外來文明
(Beijing: Sanlian Shudian, 2001), 255–257.
12 This
is recorded in the journal of Japanese monk Ennin 圓仁
(794-864):【四月】中旬
敕下，令殺天下摩尼師。剃髮，令着袈裟，作沙門形而殺之。摩尼師即迴鶻所崇重也。
