Over the last two years
or so I have taken an amateur interest in the writings of Plato and the later
Neoplatonic thinkers, especially Iamblichus. At the same time, my research into
the history of astrology has included readings of pre-modern texts on astral
magic. One thing I have noticed is that the cosmology of astral magic during
the medieval period clearly stems in large part from an earlier Platonic
worldview, although of course there are other elements in the mix that reflect
Ptolemaic and Aristotelian concepts. Understanding this cosmology is necessary
to comprehend the theoretical metaphysical framework that underlies the
efficacy of astral magic. My aim here is to provide a rough outline of
Neoplatonic cosmology and how it relates to the practice of medieval astral magic.
This is merely a digestion of a number of materials that I have studied over
the years, as well as my own notes on the subject, so I would welcome any
corrections or comments.
The cosmology at
hand is a type of monism, i.e., a metaphysical framework that attributes
existence to a single source. The process of Creation is undertaken in the
Platonic universe by the Demiurge, who is the figurative crafter of our world.
As explained in Plato’s creation myth, titled Timaeus, the Demiurge establishes time through the creation of the
movements of the Sun and Moon. He is responsible for the crafting of the
physical world and the life that inhabits it.
The Timaeus was the foundational work from
which later Platonic thinkers, especially Plotinus during the third century CE,
developed what we might call the Neoplatonic cosmology. The cosmos in said
cosmology emerges as a continual emanative process, originating from what is
called The One (to Hen), which is the
first principle of reality. From this comes the divine Intellect, in which the
forms (eidos) described by Plato are
placed. This leads to the emanation of the Soul (psyche), which is the initial activation of the forms. This in turn
leads to an expression of the Body, which is the material world. At this point
in Creation, the emergence of a plurality of souls occurs from the earlier
cosmic Soul. This process is equated to a single beam of light breaking down
into multiple rays when it passes through a prism.
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Engraving by C. Lasinio after Raphael, 1516.
Wellcome Collection. |
There are gods
that exist at the level of hypercosmic reality, although they operate outside
time and space, since they are immaterial and not subject to movement as we are
within material reality. One Neoplatonic aim is to achieve ascension into this
state, which leads to liberation from suffering (indeed, the parallels with
Buddhism have been noted many times in modern scholarship). The expression of
these divinities extends downward into materiality.
At the height of
the material cosmos are the archons, who are rulers of everything below them.
These deities are equated to the planets. Until the adoption of a heliocentric worldview
during the Renaissance, much of the world conceived of the cosmos from a
geocentric perspective, in which the Earth is stationary while the seven
planets (including the Sun and Moon) revolve around it. The planets were said
to occupy concentric spheres surrounding the Earth, the ordering of which is
traditionally called Chaldean (another name for Babylonian), which reflects the
distance of the planets from the Earth from farthest to nearest: Saturn,
Jupiter, Mars, Sol (Sun), Venus, Mercury, and Luna (Moon).
Although the
planets in Greek were named after the Hellenic gods (Zeus, Ares, etc.), this
process of denomination was just a way of assigning familiar names to the
planetary deities of Mesopotamian religion. The Zeus of this astral religion is
modeled after the Mesopotamian Marduk, hence this Zeus differs qualitatively
from the Homeric Zeus in many ways. Zeus in the astral religion plays the role
of judge, rather than being the lusty figure from Greek myths. That being said,
the Hellenistic world blended together motifs from Greek, Egyptian, and
Mesopotamian sources. There was a deep process of amalgamating divinities from
multiple cultures.
The planets as
archons function as the intermediaries between the hypercosmic and material
realities. They are the divine intelligences that design and govern our world,
but they are akin to rulers who remain distant from their subjects. They are
not directly involved in the labor of Creation. Such duties are assigned to
their underlings, who in Neoplatonic writings comprise three classes of
deities: angels, heroes, and daimons. The latter under Christian influence
became what we know as demons, i.e., purely evil beings under the direction of
Satan, but originally daimons were the functional intermediaries between
humanity and gods, akin to what we might think of as spirits in modern terms.
Again, we can turn
to Plato for an explanation of the daimons. There is a dialogue in his Symposium in which the priestess Diotima
explains to Socrates the nature of Love, which is a daimon. The dialogue reads
as follows (translation by Benjamin Jowett):
'What then is
Love?' I asked; 'Is he mortal?' 'No.' 'What then?' 'As in the former instance,
he is neither mortal nor immortal, but in a mean between the two.' 'What is he,
Diotima?' 'He is a great spirit (daimon), and like all spirits he is
intermediate between the divine and the mortal.' 'And what,' I said, 'is his
power?' 'He interprets,' she replied, 'between gods and men, conveying and
taking across to the gods the prayers and sacrifices of men, and to men the
commands and replies of the gods; he is the mediator who spans the chasm which
divides them, and therefore in him all is bound together, and through him the
arts of the prophet and the priest, their sacrifices and mysteries and charms,
and all prophecy and incantation, find their way. For God mingles not with man;
but through Love all the intercourse and converse of God with man, whether
awake or asleep, is carried on. The wisdom which understands this is spiritual;
all other wisdom, such as that of arts and handicrafts, is mean and vulgar. Now
these spirits or intermediate powers are many and diverse, and one of them is
Love.
Diotima remarks
that all prophecy and sorcery are the workings of daimons, a concept that
generally defined the mechanics of magic until the nineteenth century when
other ideas were proposed and widely embraced.
In the Platonic
worldview, phenomena within material reality are supervised, influenced,
shaped, and/or directed by daimons. The classes of divine beings, however,
multiplied in later centuries. Daimons in classical Neoplatonic cosmology
function as the laborers or custodians under specific divine hierarchies. They
carry out the micro-management necessary for Creation to operate (this includes
affecting emotional states of beings). They are also the enforcers of fate, so
to speak, which is why the eleventh house in horoscopy was called the “good
daimon”.
Daimons each fall
under a hierarchy that stretches up to one of the archons. All activities in
the sublunar world (i.e., Earth) are under the direction or co-direction of
these hierarchies. The angels and heroes also have their roles in serving their
divine hierarchies. Angels and archangels form a class above that of the
daimons. This angelic class generally does not descend into generation (our
material world), but the daimons do.
Some thinkers,
such as Plotinus, believed that one ought to escape the influence of daimons in
order to transcend fate and ascend to a permanently divine state beyond the
material world. Others, such as Iamblichus, sought to proactively work with
them and modify reality according to one's will, which is connected to the
magical practice of theurgy, a ritual framework designed to bring about
ascension of the person into the higher realms.
The issue with
daimons is that they compel the cosmic design to continue unfolding, which is
called generation, i.e., the natural world in which we find ourselves with all
its disorder and suffering. Animal instinct, for instance, is under the
daimonic domain. Animals and one half of humans (according to Iamblichus) are
governed by instinct. This instinct is embedded in beings by design and
reflects a principle of a higher hypercosmic design (that is to say, everything
in material reality is an expression of the divine forms). The faculty of
reason, which human nature possesses as its other half, is divine, and so it is
through reason that one can become a fully autonomous being, rather than simply
obeying that which has been fated, which is characterized by the natural
passions we experience, as well as normal mortal life.
How does this
relate to astral magic?
Moving forward to
the medieval period, since we do not have treatises on astral magic from
Antiquity, we see mature treatises on astral magic, such as the Ghāyat al-Ḥakīm from around the tenth
century. This work in Arabic was translated into Spanish between 1256 and 1258
at the court of Alfonso the Wise (1221–1284), and sometime shortly thereafter a
Latin translation of the Spanish was produced.
Although astral
magic can at times be explained in materialist terms, for instance the theory
of planetary rays, in general the efficacy of talismanic magic and petitions
assumes some kind of negotiation or interaction with spirits or gods. The
practice of astral magic works within this worldview in an attempt to negotiate
fate through the employment of petitions directed to the planets or the
production of talismans.
In the case of the
former, the magician identifies their aim and determines the planetary deity
under whose domain the matter at hand falls. Love would be Venusian. Military
matters would be Martian. Longevity would be Saturnian. The magician then
gathers to himself or herself the appropriate ingredients necessary for the
ritual.
The substances
prescribed in spells directed at specific planets in the Picatrix and other works sometimes have identifiable sources in
Antiquity. For example, in the Greco-Egyptian papyri, we see some documents
that assign specific metals and stones to each of the planets (Betz PGM CX
1–12): the Sun is associated with gold, the Moon with silver, Saturn with
obsidian, etc. Similarly, PGM XIII. 17–22 associates the planets with different
types of incense. Such associations between planets and substances clearly
started quite early.
In later “mature
astral magic” that we see attested only from the early medieval period in
languages such as Arabic and Syriac (the Latin translations come later in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries), all organic and inorganic substances and
creatures are said to be ruled by one or sometimes two of the planets. This is
a totalizing system that assigns planetary rulers to everything in the physical
world. This extends even into diseases and emotional states.
How are the
substances in offerings used? Suffumigation (burning) is the preferred method
of activating material offerings in the Picatrix,
although in East Asia some fragments of Iranian astral magic reveal spells that
require an altar to be set up, atop which one places an image of the planetary
deity, plus offerings and incense appropriate to them. The latter is more of a
basic cult offering, whereas the former requires a much more complex ritual
framework, recipe, and most importantly exact timing that considers planetary
configurations (an astrological election).
Determining an
election requires advanced knowledge of horoscopy, since once has to calculate
the positions of the planets relative to the constantly mobile zodiac signs. In
fact, even determining planetary hours requires careful calculation, since
these are what we call seasonal hours. The Greeks divided the day into twenty-four
hṓra or hours, but these differ from the modern convention of each hour
consisting of sixty minutes (equinoctial hours). This model of seasonal hours
divides daytime (sunrise to sunset) and nighttime (sunset to sunrise)
respectively into twelve hours of equal duration each. The length of daytime or
nighttime hours will therefore vary according to latitude and the time of the
year. One must also understand concepts such as latitude and know how to
calculate for it. In other words, determining elections was a demanding but
essential component to astral magic.
Returning to the
concept of suffumigation, there are various ways one might conceivably explain
the efficacy of it from an emic perspective (that is to say, from the viewpoint
of an astral magician).
Iamblichus
explained that the commonest link between humans and the divine is through
people and the daimons. This would be akin to meeting a lowly underling of a
king or queen. All but a few human beings have ever directly met with a god,
although meeting an angel or archangel is conceivably more realistic in this
worldview, albeit still rare. This means that when people pray to a god and
sense a response, it is normally interaction with a daimon, not the god itself.
The daimons
possess little autonomy, and merely carry out the tasks assigned to them (in ancient
Greco-Egyptian magic, interestingly, the magician would compel and coerce these
entities to do his or her bidding using the names of their superiors, but
entities up the hierarchical chain become less susceptible to such compulsion).
The daimons are also the intermediaries between material offerings and the gods
they serve.
There were
different metaphysical speculations on how precisely this occurs. How does an
archon benefit from a person offering them incense and foodstuffs, or blood
sacrifices? One idea was that the daimons actually feed on the fumes of the
material offerings. In effect, one was nourishing the underlings of a god or
goddess. If this proved ample and sufficient, then the hierarchy became aware
of the act and hopefully one’s prayers would be transmitted up the chain of
command, at which point fate might be adjusted at the discretion of the
divinity.
Ritualized
offering of substances under the rulership of a given planetary deity
effectively constitutes an act of giving unto the ruler the fruits of their
administration. The qualities of the substances are critical in this respect:
one would not give unto Saturn, who is associated with bitter and fermented
flavors, something sweet like honey, which is Venusian in quality. Saturn rules
over substances such as lead and styrax (a type of incense), animals such as
crows, and processes such as decay and fermentation. Saturn co-rules olives
with the Sun. Each of the planets also possess their own sigils, which can
considerably differ according to the manuscript or textual tradition (see the
comparison above). All such lore is necessary in designing spells directed
toward one’s aims. The explanation thus far can be illustrated on the following
figure:
The advanced
petitions explained in the Picatrix
basically open a direct channel to a divinity, rather than relying on a simple
prayer, which conceivably would normally only be heard by a daimon of the
divinity to which one has issued a request. The election is essential because
if unfavorable, then the divinity in question is similarly thought to be in an
ill position to grant a favor, whereas if the election is precisely tuned, they
are likely to respond favorably.
The worldview of
astral magic illustrated by this concept of elections is characteristically
feudal (you ought to meet with the King or Queen when they are in a good mood),
but this is by no means a medieval adaptation, since it is clear that such
concepts of rulerships and subordinate deities were a core component in earlier
Platonic cosmologies.
Talismans are
another wing of astral magic aside from petitions. This is an art of enchanting
an object with the influence or spirits of a planetary hierarchy. Again, there
are different emic explanations for metaphysically how this occurs. Some
explain that the rays of the planet become embedded in the enchanted object,
such a ring. Other traditions say that the spirits of the planet come to reside
in the talisman.
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Saturn, seven-armed and cross-legged. Manuscript 373.
Wellcome Collection. |
These talismans
can be used to benefit oneself or curse others (or curse a specific location).
For instance, the Picatrix provides a
spell to banish all dwellers of a place (p. 100, Greer and Warnock translation):
one acquires a lead plate and on it one produces a string of specific
characters with pig brains upon the day and hour of Saturn when Saturn is
rising in the second decan of Capricorn. People will avoid dwelling in the
place in which the plate is deposited. Here the idea is that one harnesses the
divine influence of Saturn to achieve a specific aim.
To sum up, astral
magic is premised on the concept of fate. Fate constitutes divine will or
organization. Numerous types of magic and religious practices are directed at
affecting or changing fate through ritual means, petitions, and prayers.
The magician
utilizes their faculty of reason in coordination with a wide array of natural
forces to produce a desired change. Astral magic necessitates interaction with
the planetary deities. In Antiquity these figures were understood as archons or
divine rulers of the world.
According to
Iamblichus, humans are in a unique position in that they possess souls
comprised of both animal and rational components. Animal instinct is primarily
governed and compelled by force of fate. This fate is expressed through the
activity of daimons. The faculty of reason that we possess enables us to
observe, analyze, and even modify fate. The practice of astral magic was
conceived of as a tool with which the hard aspects of fate could be negotiated
or modified.
