Flower Ornament Depository 華嚴藏

The Chinese Prince Siddhartha Gautama

2012-02-05T19:55:00.016+09:00

Some time ago I discovered how interesting Buddhist art from ancient China is. It offers a glimpse into how people at the time envisioned the Buddha. Even in the Tang Dynasty (618-907), when the capital Chang'an was arguably the most cosmopolitan city in the world, I imagine few people had any real sense of how India on the other side of the Himalayas looked like. They had the scriptures translated into Chinese, but lacked a visual point of reference to imagine them in. Hence, the figures from the scriptures are painted in local surroundings and wearing the garments of the time.

The following paintings are from around the 9th century. (Click for larger views).

As is well known, it is said that the Buddha's mother had a dream of a white elephant entering her womb before becoming pregnant. This painting portrays the descent of the Buddha while riding a white elephant with attendants into his future mother's womb. As you will notice, the palace is Chinese, not Indian.

The next image shows the infant prince being bathed in Lumbini where he was born. Again, notice that the attending ladies are all wearing Chinese aristocratic clothing.

The following is particularly interesting. Here we see the young prince in the palace having a discussion with his seniors. He is surrounded by courtly looking gentlemen wearing the caps and garments of the Tang Dynasty. The prince is also portrayed as a Chinese prince.

As the story goes, one day Prince Siddhartha left the palace and saw for the first time an elderly person. In this image he is seen riding a horse rather than being in a chariot. We see him exiting the gate while looking quite stately and noble.

The following day he left the palace again and saw an ill person for the first time.

As we all know, these events prompted the prince to give up palace life and become a homeless yogi. In the following image we see the prince saying his final farewell to his attendant. Note how the horse is also bowing in respect.

Later, he undertook practices of austerities. Here we see Siddhartha in meditation with what appears to be a tangled mess of hair on his head.

After nearly starving himself to death he finally realized the middle-way and bathed in the river.

After becoming enlightened, he went to Sarnath where he took on his first five disciples. The following image is curious because the five disciples are all ordinary looking figures and not mendicants.

One might assume the artists were aware that Indians in that far away "western region" would have worn different garments and looked visibly quite different, but lacking any reliable reference they just painted using imagery that they knew. Or it might have been that they actually did have some reference (such as pieces of art imported from India or perhaps Central Asia), but just felt more comfortable making the Indian Prince into a Chinese Prince. One will notice in the artwork of the time they have bodhisattvas and buddhas normally dressed in non-Chinese attire. I suspect this might have been due to an assumption that it was only holy beings that wore such garments while ordinary people did not. As the image on the left shows, the Buddha is portrayed with elongated earlobes and non-Chinese garments. I very much think the running assumption was that such garments and characteristically unique earlobes were reserved for holy beings, and hence ordinary people are not portrayed as possessing such features.

Precepts sans the Preceptor & Apocrypha

2012-01-28T18:41:00.012+09:00

In the Chinese Buddhist canon there are two notable scriptures which allow an individual under certain conditions to receive bodhisattva precepts without a physical preceptor present. This is unique because instead of receiving the bodhisattva precepts from a master one receives them from the unmanifest buddhas of the ten directions.

The Sūtra of the Jewelled Primary Activities of Bodhisattvas (Chn. Pusa Yingluo Benye Jing 菩薩瓔珞本業經) is one text which expressly gives the aspirant consent to receive the precepts without a physical preceptor under certain conditions. See the following.

《菩薩瓔珞本業經》卷2〈7 大眾受學品〉：「佛子。受戒有三種受。一者諸佛菩薩現在前受。得真實上品戒。二者諸佛菩薩滅度後。千里內有先受戒菩薩者。請為法師教授我戒。我先禮足應如是語。請大尊者。為師授與我戒。其弟子得正法戒。是中品戒。三佛滅度後千里內無法師之時。應在諸佛菩薩形像前。胡跪合掌自誓受戒。應如是言。我某甲白十方佛及大地菩薩等。我學一切菩薩戒者。是下品戒。」(CBETA, T24, no. 1485, p. 1020, c4-12)

Sons of the Buddha! In receiving the precepts there are three types of reception. The first is receiving them before physically present buddhas and bodhisattvas. One receives truly high disposition precepts. The second is where after the buddhas and bodhisattvas have passed away, if there is within a thousand miles a bodhisattva who has received the precepts, one requests them to be a Dharma Master to teach and transmit to one the precepts. One first pays respects at their feet and should speak such: "Please great venerable one, act as a master to transmit to me the precepts." The disciple then obtains the precepts of the True Dharma. These are middle disposition precepts. The third is when after the buddha has passed away and there is no Dharma Master within a thousand miles one should go before images of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Kneeling and with hands folded one makes vows and receives the precepts by oneself. One should speak as such: "I (name) respectfully address the buddhas of the ten directions and bodhisattvas of the great earth. I am one who will practice all bodhisattva precepts." These are the lower disposition precepts.

This is not unlike the Brahma Net Sūtra which also expressly allows for self-ordination.

《梵網經》卷2：「若佛子。佛滅度後。欲心好心受菩薩戒時。於佛菩薩形像前自誓受戒。當七日佛前懺悔。得見好相便得戒。若不得好相。應二七三七乃至一年。要得好相。得好相已。便得佛菩薩形像前受戒。若不得好相。雖佛像前受。戒不得戒。若現前先受菩薩戒法師前受戒時。不須要見好相何以故。以是法師師師相授故。不須好相。是以法師前受戒即得戒。以生重心故便得戒。若千里內無能授戒師。得佛菩薩形像前受戒而要見好相。」(CBETA, T24, no. 1484, p. 1006, c5-15)

You sons of the Buddha! After the Buddha has passed when one has a good attitude and mind desiring to receive the bodhisattva precepts, one may go before images of the buddha and bodhisattvas to make vows and receive the precepts alone. One should practise confession for seven days in front of the Buddha. It is when one attains witness to auspicious signs that the precepts have been obtained. If one does not attain auspicious signs, then one must after twenty-seven or thirty-seven [days], or even up to a year, attain auspicious signs. When the auspicious signs have been attained, one then may go before the images of the buddha and bodhisattvas to receive the precepts. If one does not attain auspicious signs, then even if one receives the precepts before a buddha image the precepts will not [really] have been obtained. If there is physically present one Dharma Master who has previously received the bodhisattva precepts and one then goes before them to receive the precepts, then there is no need to witness auspicious signs. Why? It is because the Dharma Master's masters have successively transmitted them. There is no need for auspicious signs. Therefore, going before the Dharma Master to receive the precepts one obtains the precepts. This is because having produced a serious mind one thus obtains the prcepts. If within a thousand miles there is no master who can transmit precepts, one then goes before images of the buddha and bodhisattvas to receive the precepts, though one must witness auspicious signs.

As to what these "auspicious signs" (Chn. hao xiang 好相) are, they are defined as follows in the text:

《梵網經》卷2：「好相者。佛來摩頂見光見華種種異相。」(CBETA, T24, no. 1484, p. 1008, c17)

Auspicious signs are various differing signs such as the Buddha rubbing one's head, seeing light and seeing flowers.

Needless to say, this is a mystic's approach to spiritual practice. However, I suspect there is something behind the mention of having no preceptor available and thus the need for a means to receive precepts while also stipulating conditions.

The translation of the Brahma Net Sūtra is attributed to Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什 (344–413 CE), though this may or may not be the truth. Likewise, the translation of the Sūtra of the Jewelled Primary Activities of Bodhisattvas is attributed to Zhu Fonian 竺佛念 (4th cent.), though it is speculated that it was produced in China. Nevertheless, one thing that comes to mind when I look at these two texts is that they appear before the first translations of the Vinaya were available. The Vinaya, the formal disciplinary code for bhikṣu monks, was first translated into Chinese only in the early 5th century. Until then whether or not China had many fully-ordained bhikṣus or not is unclear. What is clear though is that bodhisattva precepts could be available to anyone due to texts like the Brahma Net Sūtra.

Individuals capable of transmitting precepts of any kind, whether they be for bhikṣus or bodhisattvas, were probably quite few and far between. The need for having a means to receive precepts without having a preceptor present was probably apparent in this general time period. Consequently, a means to receive the precepts was provided in the aforementioned texts. That being said, the Vinaya precepts cannot be received without preceptors.

Interestingly, both of the aforementioned scriptures are thought to be, as it were, "apocryphal" in the sense of having been composed in China rather than in India. In reality a lot of the most popular scriptures in East Asian Buddhism have turned out to have arisen in China rather than in India or elsewhere. In fact, even the Heart Sūtra is suspected of having been composed outside of India. It was Jan Nattier who put forth this theory. You can read more about it at Jayarava's blog here.

One reason why so-called apocryphal scriptures might have become so popular is because they arose out of local conditions, concerns and needs, rather than those of some distant culture long ago. As I just mentioned, the need for a means to receive precepts and practise them, which would have been a concern for many Buddhist devotees who lacked access to preceptors, was curiously included in two scriptures from a time when just such concerns existed. This is perhaps the beauty of revelatory literature in that it arises out of local and present circumstances rather than being literature transmitted from another time and place and having to be reinterpreted to fit in present circumstances.

This is exactly what Mahāyāna literature of the past largely was. No matter where it came from, it clearly reflects the circumstances and times from which it comes from. It adapts to time, people and places. Even if the two scriptures cited above arose in China, why would they be any less valuable or acceptable than those from India?

Finally, one question that should be addressed is from who these revelatory scriptures came from. Of course, the literature itself has the Buddha giving a teaching and historically most individuals would have asserted it was the flesh and blood Śākyamuni Buddha who taught this teaching. However, in our present day it is thought otherwise. You will hear scholars speak of these scriptures "being written" like a novel.

The other day I was speaking about just this with some monks here in Taiwan. My opinion is that much Mahāyāna literature was the result of visions, and I have touched on this before elsewhere on this blog. In the early days of Buddhism the Mahāsāṃghika saw the Buddha as transcendental and consequently it was from said school that the Mahāyāna primarily arose from. In such an environment it is easy to imagine yogis having profound visions of the transcendental Buddha providing teachings, writing them down and such accounts becoming canonical. Likewise, as the Mahāyāna developed it became possible for some scriptures to be specifically known as revelatory, such as Asaṅga receiving the Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra-kārikā from Maitreya Buddha in a vision. This same thing could have occurred in China as well. This is why I feel scriptures "produced" in China (or anywhere for that matter) as just as valid as those from India.

There is indeed a kind of genuine sincerity to be found in this kind of literature. Wherever it came from, the individuals responsible for first putting it down on paper were clearly concerned with the spiritual welfare of others. By providing a means to practise precepts without a preceptor, they did a great service to those devotees in remote lands lacking dharma teachers.

Life in Leh

2012-01-01T01:50:00.020+09:00

Leh is a town of about 30,000 residents located at 3524 metres (11,562 ft) above sea-level in Ladakh, India. Ladakh is a part of the state of Jammu Kashmir and hugs the northernmost border against Xinjiang and Tibet. It originally was a Himalayan kingdom, but at present it is a part of the Republic of India. Like Bhutan and Nepal, there still exists long-standing Buddhist traditions that have more or less enjoyed relative stability for many centuries. There are many stupas dotting the landscape, some going back over a millennium like Tisserru Stupa pictured to the left. Ladakh was originally not within the Tibetan cultural sphere, but sometime starting in the 9^th or 10^th century came within the its cultural fold.

In August of 2011 I left Japan after completing my MA degree in Buddhist Studies and headed to Leh for a few months of meditation and study. My original plan was to stay until mid-January, but unfortunately I only stayed until December 7^th.. I was disappointed with the level of noise in Leh, even up on a mountain I could often hear noise from the valley, loud tourists outside my window or army helicopters flying overhead. At night the local dogs would have their conflicts which of course proved disturbing. Still, I did get some solid meditation done. I was primarily focused on śamatha, which requires relative silence. Unfortunately, I didn't necessarily always have silence. My original goals went unfulfilled, but I did manage a lot of solid practice.

The cold was beginning to affect my health as well. Although I come from a cold country, the winter in Leh is fierce, especially when you live in a cement building with no insulation or heating. No matter how many blankets or layers you have on you, the cold air and high altitude mean the chill just never ceases. Electric heaters are illegal due to electricity shortages (the power in winter is only on from around 6pm to 11pm), and a gas heater in my estimation was too hazardous. Come December I was feeling lethargic and unable to focus on anything, so I departed.

However, I did overall enjoy my time in Leh. I found the locals quite friendly, helpful and honest. Unlike elsewhere in India, the Ladakhi merchants and farmers I dealt with gave me the same price as everyone else. Ladakhis never underwent colonization under the British and were largely isolated from the outside world and tourism until the 1970's, so I suspect this has something to do with their general attitude towards foreigners being so drastically different from elsewhere in India. Leh is relatively wealthy as well, perhaps owing to the large military bases there as well as the large numbers of tourists, both foreign and Indian, that frequent the area, especially in summer.

In terms of food I was cooking for myself and was happy that I could buy produce directly from farmers at the bazaar. After living on Japan's largely industrial food for two years, I felt my spirits increase eating such wholesome and organic vegetables. I was also given a generous amount of tsampa, or roasted barley flour, which is the traditional staple of many Himalayan peoples. One generally mixes tsampa with hot butter tea, but some people also add cheese and other condiments. I took mine with locally produced apricot jam.

Besides meditation, I also did some extensive reading which included, among other works, a lengthy commentary in Chinese by Jizang 吉藏 (549–623) on Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā. Being mostly isolated in my small room atop a mountain I was left to my own affairs. I purchased a AM/FM radio and was surprised when I discovered just how many radio stations from around Asia one can receive up in the Himalayas. It seemed most of China was available, but stations from as far away as Korea were available. Finding the BBC World Service available on two separate frequencies made for a kind of companion to have around at times.

We also had the 20^th anniversary of Shanti Stupa's founding in mid September. A number of government officials attended along with some notable local Buddhist figures. Rev. Wasada, one of the top five Tendai priests in Japan, also presided over the ceremonies. Shanti Stupa, founded by Ven. Nakamura Gyomyo, was built by both Japanese and Ladakhi parties, so the anniversary ceremonies combined both Tibetan and Japanese Buddhist elements.

Living in Leh was indeed a positive experience. It was my first time going up to that altitude, and I have to say, coming from the flat prairies of Canada, seeing those massive mountains every morning was something I could never grow weary of. When I was young I always felt the urge to go and travel to distant lands and in particular to the Himalayas – I feel satisfied having actually done this. Observing a living Buddhist culture deep in the Himalayas while residing within it was rewarding, both spiritually and perhaps intellectually as it lent real life experience to book knowledge.

In concluding this post, I should like to offer a link to the poem I composed in Chinese while in Leh with an English translation below:

Verses of a Wanderer 游士文

http://wenyanwen.blogspot.com/2011/12/verses-of-wanderer.html

Essential Points on Karma

2011-12-29T16:02:00.008+09:00

“The teaching of karma, or action, forms the cornerstone of the whole Buddhist doctrine: action is the ultimate explanation of human existence and of the physical world, and it is in terms of karma that the Buddhist masters have constructed their philosophy.” ¹ - Etienne Lamotte

Karma is indeed the foundation of Buddhist thought, but it is often misunderstood. In the present day English speaking world despite having gained currency in colloquial speech few know the actual meaning of term. The semantic warping of the idea of karma in recent decades is perhaps a topic worthy of investigation, but my purpose here is to provide the basic details of what precisely karma means in Buddhism. Many Buddhists themselves only have a vague idea of what the term means, and more often than not it is cloaked in nebulous sentiments. Nevertheless, as the great Lama Tsongkhapa of Tibet stressed, understanding of karma is important:

“Attaining certain knowledge of the definiteness, or nondeceptiveness, of karma and its effects is called the correct viewpoint of all Buddhists and is praised as the foundation of all virtue.”²

Being that understanding karma is absolutely essential for a practitioner of Buddhadharma it would be wise for any interested individual to thoroughly study the subject. It is my hope here to provide the basics as well as resource texts from which further study can be undertaken.

In discussing karma (Pāli: kamma) it would be best to begin with how the term was specifically defined by the Buddha himself. Action (karma) is volition (cetanā) from which a process of activity is carried out via body, speech and mind. The word karma itself is derived from the verb-root kṛ in Sanskrit which is related to the English word create, where the relatively same syllable fulfilling the same function is found. Both Sanskrit and English are Indo-European languages and hence having descended from the same prehistorical language they have such similarities as this. Consider the following quote by the Buddha in the Aṅguttaranikāya:

"Oh monks, I say that action is volition; after having willed it, one accomplishes action by means of the body, the voice and the mind."³

Karma produces effects (vipāka-phala) and this is certain according to the Buddha. Furthermore, those actions do not perish.

“Action does not perish, even after hundreds of millions of cosmic eras. When the complex [of conditions] and [favourable] times come together, they ripen for their author.”⁴

The result of karma is primarily, though not exclusively, experienced as agreeable or disagreeable sensation. Tsongkhapa emphasizes this as follows.

“All happiness in the sense of feelings of ease - whether ordinary or noble beings, including even the slightest pleasures such as the rising of a cool breeze for a being born in a hell - arises from previously accumulated virtuous karma. It is impossible for happiness to arise from nonvirtuous karma.

All sufferings in the sense of painful feelings - including even the slightest suffering occuring in an arhat's mind-stream - arise from previously accumulated nonvirtuous karma. It is impossible for suffering to arise from virtuous karma.”⁵

In other words, good deeds lead to ease while evil deeds bring about suffering. When the Buddha speaks of action not perishing even on a scale of cosmic time he is referring to karmic effects experienced in a future lifetime. Karma is intricately linked to the process of rebirth (punarbhava), whereby postmortem one's psycho-physical continuity re-emerges as a new life due specifically to the ripening of one's past karma. It goes without saying that karma and rebirth are intrinsically related and one may not be deprived of the other.

The quality of karma is threefold consisting of meritorious action (puṇyakarma) / favourable action (kuśalakarma), demeritorious action (apuṇyakarma) / unfavourable action (akuśalakarma), and immovable action (āniñjyakarma), which is favourable action associated with the form and formless realms (rūpārūpyapratisaṃyukta). The form and formless realms are the two higher planes of existence in Buddhist cosmology. These three kinds of karma are karmic formations (saṃskāra), that is to say things arisen due to action, conditioned by ignorance (avidyā). Ignorance is further twofold: ignorance of results, which produces demeritorious formations (apuṇya-saṃskāra), and ignorance of reality (tattvārtha-avidyā), which produces meritorious and immovable formations (puṇya-āniñjya-saṃskāra).⁶

Now, in simpler terms, these three types of karma foster existence through karma (karmabhava) and these are all conditioned by ignorance, which can be divided into two types. The first is ignorance of result, whereby one is unaware of the effects of deeds driven by such mental afflictions as hatred and greed, resulting in suffering. The second is ignorance of reality, whereby although one has awareness of good and evil (and consequently the causes of ease and suffering), one still continues to produce karma, albeit resulting in favourable circumstances such as being in a state of ease or in dhyāna (meditative stabilization).

It is important to understand that even so-called good karma, while still producing favourable results such as ease (sukha), is conditioned by ignorance and results in further effects propelling one's saṃsāra (i.e., one's involuntary rebirths). In other words, you cannot liberate yourself from saṃsāra on good karma alone. Amassing vast amounts of good karma would result in being reborn as some high deity beyond what most humans could conceptualize, but such a state would be impermanent and when the effect of that karma expired one would fall down into a lower realm on the cosmological ladder.

That being said, the conditions for liberation from saṃsāra of course will be more available if one is in a state of ease and possessing both the mental capacity and circumstances, such as having the time, resources and teachers, to pursue liberation. Such a capacity and circumstances are unavailable to beings reborn in the lower realms, the cause of such rebirths being demeritorious actions. On the reverse, the causes for being reborn as human and having access to means appropriate for pursuing liberation are meritorious actions. Again, good deeds do not bring about liberation – they only foster the conditions unto which that liberation is made possible.

This is why in Buddhist cultures you see individuals, both lay and monastic, frequently engage in activities that generate merit (puṇya) such as making offerings, circumambulating stūpas clockwise (in ancient India this was a way of venerating someone or something) and prostrating themselves before images of buddhas and/or bodhisattvas. The purpose of this is to karmically cultivate favourable conditions whereby one at the most basic level can live a life free of as much distress as possible as well as to foster circumstances, either in this life or in a future life, where one can actively work towards achieving complete liberation from saṃsāra. In liturgy and in prayers practitioners will often dedicate the merit they have accumulated from their recent activities either towards all sentient beings, hoping that they will all without exception karmically benefit from the virtuous deeds recently carried out, or towards their own enlightenment, whereupon they will be liberated from saṃsāra and, at least in the case of Mahāyāna traditions, they will be in an optimal position to be of benefit to others having experientially understood exactly how liberation from suffering was achieved.

It is important to understand that ignorance (avidyā) is not some kind of substance or force from which action occurs. Ignorance here is the antonym of knowing. It is the absence of knowing the consequences of results and/or reality itself. When full knowledge of consequences is present, one does not commit unwholesome actions, the results of which will be experienced as suffering. When full knowledge of reality is present, there will be, at least in the case of an individual seeking cessation of rebirth, simply no more karma produced which would result in rebirth. To obtain such knowledge includes a process of ridding oneself of mental afflictions such as malice and greed which hinder attainment of wisdom – namely, wisdom of how reality is and how ones own existence works within it. To do this demands attainments in meditation whereby perceptual objects experienced within the mind are stopped while simultaneously the effect of ceaselessly flowing defilements (pravāha) and their outflow in accordance with the state of the mind (anusraveyus) end. At that point insight, not tainted by perceptual objects which give rise to defilements, manifests.

This raises the question why an individual who completely rids themselves of the aforementioned ignorance still visibly continues to live until physical death. In the case of an arhat, one who has rid themselves of the aforementioned ignorance, they produce no new karma, but are still subject to their old karma for the duration of their physical life. This is called “nirvāṇa with remainder” (sopadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa). Upon passing away they attain “nirvāṇa without remainder” (nirupadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa), whereby having cut away all causes for future rebirths and their old karma finally expiring, they pass into final nirvāṇa like the flame of candle being blown out.

In the case of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva there would still be full knowledge of reality, though she would still take rebirth, albeit voluntarily, as cessation of rebirth would result in being unable to be of aid to anyone. In some traditions of Mahāyāna it is said that an arhat still suffers subtle ignorance and will eventually re-emerge within reality, albeit in favourable circumstances and walking the bodhisattva path. However, such a view is not universal.

I said above that the result of karma is primarily, though not exclusively, experienced as sensation. As explained above an arhat lives out their old karma while producing no new karma. This is an example of an effect of karma not specifically being sensation. As recorded in the Samyutta Nikaya the Buddha made the distinction between “old karma” and “new karma” as follows.

"Monks, I will teach you new & old kamma, the cessation of kamma, and the path of practice leading to the cessation of kamma. Listen and pay close attention. I will speak.”

"Now what, monks, is old kamma? The eye is to be seen as old kamma, fabricated & willed, capable of being felt. The ear... The nose... The tongue... The body... The intellect is to be seen as old kamma, fabricated & willed, capable of being felt. This is called old kamma.”

"And what is new kamma? Whatever kamma one does now with the body, with speech, or with the intellect: This is called new kamma.”⁷

Old karma is the fruition of past actions in the form of being or existence. New karma are the actions carried out by way of the existence one has obtained via past action.

At this point there is a distinction to be made between karma that produces rebirth and the karma that will define the qualities of that existence. Asanga defines these two types as follows in the Abhidharmasammucaya:

“The results of favorable and unfavorable actions are produced in the good and bad destinies (sugati, durgati). This also, through the projecting action (ākṣepaka-karma) and the completing action (paripūraka-karma). What is projecting action? It is the action by means of which the result of fruition is produced. What is completing action? It is the action by means of which, after having been born, one experiences good and bad results.”⁸

In other words, good and evil deeds dictate one's destiny post-mortem – one can be reborn in any of the six realms on the cosmological ladder which includes the hell realms through animal and human embodiments up to celestial existence as a deity. Evil deeds drive a being into the hell realms. Good actions lead one into more favourable kinds of existences. There is action which specifically “projects” or specifically produces a future life while there are other actions which dictate what kind of life it will be.

It is often asked if there is such a thing as collective karma. In other words, is it possible for a group of individuals to collectively produce karma and mutually experience its effects? While there might be some who would contest this, Vasubandhu in the Abhidharmakośa explains the reality of collective karma using the example of an army or group set on killing.

When many persons are united with the intention to kill, either in war, or in the hunt, or in banditry, who is guilty of murder, if only one of them kills?

As soldiers, etc., concur in the realization of the same effect, all are as guilty as the one who kills.

Having a common goal, all are guilty exactly as he who among them kills, for all mutually incite one another, not through speech, but by the very fact that they are united together in order to kill.

But is the person who has been constrained through force to join the army also guilty?

Evidently so, unless he has formed the resolution, "Even in order to save my life, I shall not kill a living being."⁹

The magnitude of this is potentially frightening as an individual participating in a military of a million personnel at war has the potential to suffer immeasurably in the future even if they themselves do not harm anyone. It is not just the pilot dropping the bomb who commits an evil deed, but every member of logistics and command supporting the action is equally guilty of the act.

This being said, a simple examination of Buddhist nations will reveal such ideas are not visibly accepted. Most Buddhist countries or countries with significant Buddhist populations support the death penalty with minimal opposition to it. The supporting participants in a justice system which executes a criminal support the act of killing, and it is not simply the executioner and judge which condemns the convict to death who are guilty, but a whole organization of individuals who support and aid in carrying out the deed, both by condoning the act and actively aiding in it by their own free will. Nevertheless, justice systems in places like Thailand and even Japan are notoriously inhumane and brutal to prisoners, despite their ancestral religion attempting to teach compassion.

On a cosmological scale karma also plays a key role. In contrast to theists who assert the universe was created by a supreme deity, in Buddhism it is said that the universe and all its variety comes into existence due to karma. In other words, intelligent design by way of a deity is flat out rejected. Again, quoting Vasubandhu:

Who created the variety of the world of living beings and the receptacle-world which we have described in the preceding chapter?

It was not a god who intelligently created it.

The variety of the world arises from action.

The variety of the world arises from the actions of living beings.

But in this hypothesis, how does it happen that actions produce at one and the same time, pleasing things, - saffron, sandalwood, etc. - on the one hand, and bodies of opposite qualities on the other?

The actions of beings whose conduct is a mixture of good and bad actions produce bodies resembling abscesses whose impurities flow out through the nine gates, and, in order to serve as a remedy to these bodies, they also produce objects of pleasing enjoyment, colors and shapes, odors, tastes and tangibles. But the gods have accomplished only good actions: their bodies and their objects of enjoyment are equally pleasing.¹⁰

Sentient beings, which includes both human and non-human beings, collectively create reality via their volitional activity. This is of course quite alien to prevailing ideas in the modern western world, which at their core are inherently materialistic and deny ontological legitimacy to the mental sphere of our reality. In one sense this is to be expected of ordinary people who accept their sensory experience as solid and real, though in Buddhism such experiences are seen in a much different light. Mental activity is the basis of reality, not innate physical matter and insentient physical processes.

The process of how karma comes to fruition as vipāka was historically a long debated topic amongst Buddhist intellectuals in India. In other words, everyone agreed that volitional action resulted in the effects as outlined above, but the actual process of how that occurred was never something everyone agreed upon.

For example, the early Theravadins asserted that actions persisted in an unripened state until meeting with the causes for fruition, though they failed to account for a link of continuity between the cause and effect. The Sarvāstivāda school in Kashmir conceived of the result of karma persisting like a debt. The Sautrāntika school of thought said that actions created traces (vāsanā) within the continuum of mind, whereby they came to fruition when the mind encountered specific circumstances which enabled the ripening of a past action. The Saṃmitīya school taught the existence of a dharma which they called “indestructible” – while not mental, it followed the mind until it came to fruition via cause and condition, or death. When an individual died, one special “indestructible”, based at the moment of death on the state of mind of the dying, would determine whether they took rebirth in a higher and lesser realm.

The nature or mechanism of how karma ripens into a result experienced by the original agent was never unanimously agreed upon. This fostered a lot of scholastic debate in ancient India and influenced later doctrines and practices. In any case, everyone did agree with the original assertion of the Buddha that volitional action results in either suffering or ease depending on the quality of the original action. The mechanism of how this occurred was left to later thinkers to ponder and discuss.

Ultimately, the whole point of understanding karma is soteriological in nature – that is to say liberation from suffering. It is through understanding and penetrating karma that one abandons those actions and mental inclinations towards nonvirtuous ends, whereupon one then fosters favourable circumstances in which spiritual practices may be directed towards liberation. Here I will conclude with another quote from Tsong Khapa:

At this point master the classifications of virtue and nonvirtue, as well as their effects. You must then make it your practice to properly cast aside nonvirtues and adopt virtues. For, unless you reflect at length on the two kinds of karma and their effects, and then properly cast aside the nonvirtuous and adopt the virtuous, you will not stop the causes of miserable rebirths. Thus, you may fear the miserable realms and yet not be able to escape what you fear.

Consequently, in order to be protected from the miserable realms at the time when you must experience the effects, you have to restrain the mind from engaging in nonvirtue at the time when you are creating the causes. This, in turn, is contingent upon attaining conviction about karma and its effects.¹¹

Suggested Further Reading:

The following texts are essentially classical textbooks written by erudite Buddhist masters which go into great detail elucidating not only karma, but all aspects of Buddhadharma. Historically they have played a key role as foundational reference works which were thoroughly studied. They are all available in English translation.

Karmasiddhi Prakarana The Treatise on Action by Vasubandhu. An extensive treatise on the prevailing theories of karma in Vasubandhu's time. See Vasubandhu, Karmasiddhi Prakarana The Treatise on Action by Vasubandhu. Translated into French by Etienne Lamotte. English translation by Leo M. Pruden. Fremont, CA: Asian Humanities Press: 1987.

Abhidharma-kośa-bhāsya by Vasubandhu. There is a chapter in this work specifically dedicated to discussing karma. See Vasubandhu, Abhidharma-kośa-bhāsya. Translated into French by Louis de La Vallee Poussin, English translation by Leo M. Pruden. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1991.

Abhidharmasamuccaya by Asanga. Another work worth investigation as it explains karma in fine detail. See Asanga, Abhidharmasamuccaya The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy). Translated into French and annotated by Walpola Rahula, English translation by Sara Boin-Webb. Fremont, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 2001.

Footnotes:

1Vasubandhu, Karmasiddhi Prakarana The Treatise on Action by Vasubandhu. Translated into French by Etienne Lamotte. English translation by Leo M. Pruden (Fremont, CA: Asian Humanities Press: 1987), 15.

2Tsongkhapa, Tsong-kha-pa Blo-bzan-grags-pa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment. Volume One. Translated by the Lamrim Chenmo Translation Committee (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2000), 211

3Cetanāhaṁ bhikkhave kammaṁ vadāmi, cetayitvā kammaṁ karoti kāyena vācāya manasā. See Karmasiddhi Prakarana The Treatise on Action by Vasubandhu, 15.

4Na praṇaśyanti karmāṇi kalpakoṭiśatair api sāmagrīm prāpya kālaṁ ca phalanti khalu dehinām. Ibid., 16.

5Tsong-kha-pa Blo-bzan-grags-pa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment, 210.

6See Asanga, Abhidharmasamuccaya The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy). Translated into French and annotated by Walpola Rahula, English translation by Sara Boin-Webb (Fremont, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 2001), 116-117

7See Kamma Sutta: Action, translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn35/index.html

8Abhidharmasamuccaya, 115-116

9Vasubandhu, Abhidharma-kośa-bhāsya. Vol. 1. Translated into French by Louis de La Vallee Poussin, English translation by Leo M. Pruden (Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1991), 649.

10Abhidharma-kośa-bhāsya, 551

11Tsong-kha-pa Blo-bzan-grags-pa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment, 209.

Buddhist Tales for the Soul

2011-12-27T16:28:00.003+09:00

In early 2010 I was asked by my friend Venerable Nakamura Gyōmyō to translate a collection of his short stories which were originally published in Japanese. I agreed and after many months of developing something of an ability to translate Japanese fiction into agreeable English, we finalized the manuscript at Shanti Stupa in Leh, Ladakh. It was earlier this month, December 2011, that the book finally went to print.

It is basically short stories with Buddhist themes, aimed at a teenage reading audience, though anyone who enjoys light fiction would enjoy it as well. Unlike my other translations, this is not specifically a dharma text, and thus the challenge was to be less academic in translating this work while taking out a poetic license to make the language work.

Publication details:

Nakamura Gyōmyō, Buddhist Tales for the Soul. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt.Ltd., 2012. (ISBN 978-81-207-6841-3)

The work is available on Amazon as a Kindle edition.

Print copies are available from the publisher.

Feeding Your Mothers

2011-12-12T23:39:00.010+09:00

In India there is no animal control, so stray animals of all kinds reside in human territory. Dogs are the most common. There are also cows, donkeys, goats and in most regions monkeys. Even in New Delhi you will encounter monkeys hanging out. In some parts of the country there are also wild elephants. Cats for some reason are not so common.

Unfortunately, in my experience at least, stray dogs are not treated very well in India. Some locals, no matter their religious persuasion, evidently feel no guilt in hissing at them and even throwing stones at them. Most dogs in India are completely harmless – half of them are terrified of people and most of the time they're just out looking for something to eat. That being said, however, India is still a better place for animals than Japan where stray dogs, rare as they are, are captured and executed just for being the wrong species. This is actually why even Tokyo is near silent at night. They kill all the dogs that would make noise if they were around.

Whenever I would go to the bazaar in Leh I would have to descend the mountain and walk through town for about a half-hour. The return trip was usually forty minutes given the walk uphill. I made it a habit of buying a bag of biscuits when going back and distributing them to all the stray dogs along the way, and sometimes the occasional cow. I befriended a number of the canines and was able to see family relations amongst them. They also came to appreciate me a lot and upon seeing me coming down the road would become excited and greet me.

One afternoon I was returning from the bazaar and was feeding the three dogs who were following me. There was this elderly Ladakhi gentleman walking ahead of me and he glanced back at me with a look of disgust.

“Why do you feed these stray dogs?”

I replied, “Because they are my mothers!”

His expression of disgust suddenly shifted into a look of insight. “That's true,” he remarked. I had to wonder if this was the first time it ever occurred to him that perhaps just maybe it would be appropriate to actually respect the stray dogs. In Tibetan Buddhism you frequently hear, “All sentient beings my mothers!” However, I reckon few take such sentiments to heart, and most just pay lip service to it.

So, even this old Buddhist fellow, I reckon, has little respect for the dogs despite probably having a whole lifetime of lamas telling him about the virtues of generosity and that all sentient beings at some point in the infinite past were your mother, so respecting and caring for them is a duty. However, having seen an old lama in Leh throwing a rock at a stray dog just because he didn't want him around, I imagine much of the monastics as well just pays lip service to such teachings about respecting all sentient beings.

If a dog had rabies and showed up around your door, then maybe such harsh tactics could be justified, but the dogs just wander around looking for food. They're completely harmless and I've discovered that they respond particularly well to kindness.

There is this one dog at the stupa, whom I called Huang because he is yellow (Huang means yellow in Chinese), who at first was quite terrified of me and would only accept food offered from a distance. After several weeks of feeding him leftovers and whatever else I had on hand he started cautiously taking food from my hand. Eventually I stood at my door and he would even step inside the room and receive the biscuits from my hand, pausing to examine the door, clearly wanting to make sure it wasn't going to suddenly slam shut and trap him. The stray dogs all know that trespassing inside a human dwelling would mean a harsh beating, or even a death sentence.

However, I befriended Huang and though he wouldn't actually stay inside my room despite the warmth, we developed a relationship of trust to the point he was no longer visibly scared of me. Considering how terrified of me he was when we first met, I think of this as an accomplishment.

Towards the end of my stay in Leh, the caretaker, who speaks English, came to my door and said, “Lama-ji said not to feed the dogs anymore – they'll come here, run around and damage the place.”

I nodded and acknowledged the command, though had no intention of following it. I spent a few hours thinking about why specifically I felt hesitant about obeying and it occurred to me that it was his negative karma for interfering with my generosity – I had made it a point to feed any dog that came to my door at any time of the day, and feeding Huang at around 6pm daily was a pleasure for me and I knew he appreciated it a lot, being a stray without a constant source of food. In actuality the stray dogs at worst would just take a dump somewhere, but they don't damage anything as everything is made of solid cement.

Unfortunately, the following day Lama-ji demonstrated his outright cruelty to animals. When I came back from the bazaar the dog I call Beardo followed me despite me trying to deter him as I knew very well the staff wouldn't be pleased if he showed up. Nevertheless, he trailed behind at a distance and a few hours later I looked out the window and saw him sleeping outside my door. I figured come dark I would give him some tsampa (gruel made of roasted barley flour), as I had to do such feeding in secret.

Not much long afterwards I was sitting down reading and heard the dog yelping rather loudly. I looked out the window and saw the dog running down the hill with his tail tucked between his legs. Lama-ji had a few rocks in hand as he watched the poor dog fleeing. This nearly had me in tears as I absolutely abhor cruelty to animals. Lama-ji then proceeded to chant, “Om Mani Padme Hum”.

Needless to say, chanting the mantra of compassion after intentionally harming a stray dog which was just sleeping, is simply hypocritical and unbecoming of a monk. I went and examined the rock that struck beardo. It was sharp and not small. There are more non-violent ways to get rid of stray dogs such as tossing water on them, but in Ladakh rocks are plentiful and water is expensive.

However, this actually does speak of something about cultural conditioning and how it relates to Buddhism. In Ladakh people despise stray dogs and have no qualms harming them. I doubt anyone, even monks, discourage others from kicking or throwing rocks at them, despite the reality that in Buddhism intentionally harming animals is not only negative karma, but contrary to the ideals of compassion and kindness. In other words, cultural conditioning overrides the ethics of Buddhism in many cases.

Take for example how most Buddhist nations, as well as those with significant Buddhist populations, uphold the death penalty. Few, if any of those nations, have major campaigns to abolish capital punishment as well. Again, here is Buddhism teaching compassion and non-violence, but something like the death penalty is actively supported by the population.

I might be accused of being an idealist, but it is not too much of a demand to think individuals, particularly Buddhists both lay and monastic, might refrain from harming animals, and actually take it upon themselves to feel some empathy for their welfare. In the Mahāyāna, after all, Buddhahood is a result of not just wisdom, but also compassion. That compassion should ideally override cultural conditioning that would encourage behaviour contrary to the path, like throwing rocks at dogs.

Tibetan and Chinese Buddhisms

2011-11-23T18:41:00.012+09:00

Reading through the section entitled “Refuting Misconceptions About Meditation” in Lamrim Chenmo by Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) he discusses the erroneous idea, which as he states was common in his time, that analytical meditation is contrary to stabilizing meditation. He also states that this line of thinking is also the system of thought of the Chinese monk Ha-shang (in Chinese Heshang 和尚), who personifies in Tibetan Buddhist history the perceived inferiority of Chinese Chan. See the following quotes:

"There are persons who have not begun to recognize that the classic scriptures and their commentaries constitute personal instructions, and who, therefore, might have the following qualm.

Qualm: When you meditate on the path, you should do only stabilizing meditation rather than repeatedly analyzing your object of meditation, for repeated analysis with discerning wisdom is only for times of study and reflection. Moreover, repeated analysis will prevent you from future attainment of buddhahood because conceptual thought apprehends signs of true existence.

Reply: This is nonsensical chatter of someone who is utterly ignorant of the crucial points of practice, for Maitreya's Ornament for the Mahāyāna Sūtras states:

Proper attention is based upon prior study. Sublime wisdom, which takes reality as its object, arises from your cultivation of proper attention.

Here Maitreya teaches that you should use the wisdom that comes from reflection to attend properly to the meaning of what you have studied. From this there will arise the wisdom that comes from meditation and perceives reality."¹

He draws a parallel between this wrong conception of meditation with the infamous Chinese Ha-shang. As the story goes he lost the debate at Samye Monastery to Indian monks, whereupon it was decided that Tibet would only receive and adopt Indian forms of Buddhism. Whether this debate actually occurred or not is subject to debate, but as far as Tibetan cultural memory goes it happened.

"Moreover, to claim that all conceptual thought involves the apprehension of signs of true existence, and thus prevents enlightenment, is the worst possible misconception as it disregards all discerning meditation. This is the system of the Chinese abbot Ha-shang. I explain its refutation in the section on serenity and insight. This misconception also interferes with the development of deep respect for classic texts, because these texts are mainly concerned only with the need to use discerning analysis, whereas Ha-shang's system sees all analysis as unnecessary during practice."²

Reading this it occurred me that another author of note Cheng'guan 澄觀 (738-839 CE) in the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), who lived in the same general era as when the Samye debate occurred where the infamous Ha-shang was brutally refuted, addresses the same issue in a rather small work of his entitled Examining the Five Aggregates 《五蘊觀》 where he outlines the practice of analyzing the five psycho-physical aggregates and in the concluding remarks refutes the same objection that Tsong Khapa does.

《五蘊觀》卷1：「問。夫求解脫。祗是了妄證真。但能契真如理。寂然無念則便離縛。何假興心觀蘊方求解脫。豈不乖理哉。答。離蘊真妄約何而立。且五蘊者身心之異名。行人若不識身心。真妄何能懸契。不達真妄之本。諸行徒施。故經云。若於虗空終不能成。斯之謂也。且計人我者。凡夫之執也。計法我者。二乘之滯也。故令修二觀。方能了妄證真。豈可離也。」

'It is asked, “Seeking liberation is only just understanding delusion and realizing the truth. It is merely being able to realize the principle of tathātā – in quietude without thoughts and then binds are removed. How does one provisionally arouse the mind, examine the aggregates and then seek liberation? Is this not in opposition to the principle?”

We answer: with what do you stand without aggregates, truth and delusion? Furthermore, the five aggregates are a different name for the body and mind. Supposing the practitioner is not aware of the truth and delusions of body and mind, how could they completely understand them? They do not reach the source of truth and delusion and practises are vainly undertaken. Thus the scripture states, “It is like in emptiness ultimately nothing being able to be established.”³ Furthermore, the conception of a self of a person is a delusional attachment for the ordinary person. The conception of the self of a phenomenon is an obstruction for the two vehicles. Thus we have them practice the two examinations and then they are able to understand delusion and realize the truth. How could you do without this?'⁴

This is noteworthy because the Samye debate is said to have occurred in the same time period as Cheng'guan was writing (8^th century). We can indeed assume that some Buddhist thinkers in China at the time, perhaps those Cheng'guan had in mind, held the view of Ha-shang, but this was by no means a universal view held east of Tibet. I gather that in Tibetan Buddhism the views of Ha-shang are commonly thought of as “Chinese Buddhist views” and hence the whole of Chinese Buddhist thought can be easily dismissed and regarded as essentially defective. However, if we should just imagine that it was the scholar and yogi Cheng'guan who attended the debate at Samye, rather than this notorious Ha-shang character, then the perception of Chinese Buddhism in the general Tibetan Buddhist perspective might have evolved into a more positive image.

Fortunately, there has been some progressive development in recent times in clarifying long-held misconceptions between Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist traditions. There was a discussion held between His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Chan Master Sheng Yen in May 1998. Their discussion is recorded and translated in the publication Meeting of Minds. In the following quoted section the Dalai Lama notes the probable existence of two Chinese monks active in Tibet in the early history, and points out the source of the long-standing issue that, in general, Tibetan Buddhism has seemed to have had with Chinese Buddhism. He also notes Tsongkhapa's vocal criticism of Chan as he understood it.

His Holiness:

Earlier today in our private meeting, I was very impressed and pleased to hear that Venerable Sheng Yen once spent six years in solitary retreat. Listening to your presentation of Chan Buddhist teachings, my immediate and very profound feeling was that I was listening to words of wisdom from someone who is very experienced and a great practitioner. For all of us, to have knowledge of Dharma is indeed very important, but perhaps what is more important is to put that knowledge of Dharma into practice.

Listening to your explanation of Chan Buddhism, I jotted down a few questions that I would like to ask. First, in which century did Master Huineng live?

Venerable Sheng Yen:

He lived in the eighth century of the Common Era.

His Holiness:

The reason I ask is that there is some historical connection to Chan in the origin and development of Tibetan Buddhism. We know that Lama Tsongkhapa had been one of the most vocal critics of the sudden teachings of Chan in Tibet, and there was a great debate surrounding Chan and the teachings transmitted from Indian Buddhism.

However, in the Samye Temple during the formative era of Tibetan Buddhism in the reign of King Tri-song-Deutsen, different wings were devoted to different practices. One section is devoted to the Vajrayana practitioners-the tantricas. Another section is dedicated to the lozawas and the panditas-the translators and the scholars. The third section is called the dhyana hall, the place of meditation. This is supposed to have been the residence of a Chinese master referred to as Hoshang. It was during the eighth century, when Samye was built, that the Indian masters Santarakshita and Kamalashila were active in Tibet and were part of the development of Tibetan Buddhism.

My feeling is that if Santarakshita built a separate wing in the Samye temple for the residence of the Chinese Chan masters, he must have welcomed that tradition and recognized it as an important element of Buddhism in Tibet. However, it seems that during the time of his disciple, Kamalashila, certain followers of Chan in Tibet perhaps promoted a slightly different version of the original doctrine. They placed tremendous emphasis on rejecting all forms of thought, not just in the context of a specific practice, but almost as a philosophical position. This is what Kamalashila attacked. Therefore, it seems to me, there were two different versions of Chan that came to Tibet.

Venerable Sheng Yen:

I am very grateful to His Holiness for bringing up the subject of the Chinese master Hoshang. From the story, it seems that those Chinese monks during the time of Kamalashila were not qualified to represent Chan. In the Dun Huang Caves, a place where many Buddhist texts were excavated, Buddhist scholars have found ancient texts relating a similar story about the first Chinese monk who greatly influenced Tibetan Buddhism, in particular the practice of meditation. So maybe the first Chinese master who went to Tibet wasn't so bad after all!

His Holiness:

In the Tibetan story, the first Chinese master was welcome; the second master supposedly lost the debate!

Venerable Sheng Yen:

So maybe the problem will not be with me, but with my successor who will again lose!

His Holiness:

Yes! From the Tibetan viewpoint, we welcome the first Hoshang. To the followers of the second Hoshang, we will have to say "good-bye!" If the Chinese masters that we encounter now are followers of the first Chinese master in Tibet, we will gladly receive them. If they are followers of the second Chinese master, we will have to say "farewell."⁵

Unfortunately, despite His Holiness' positive remarks, I do not foresee much serious interaction between Chinese and Tibetan traditions. I understand that in Taiwan Tibetan Buddhism is somewhat popular and I once met a Kagyu-pa Lama in 2010 when I was visiting the National Palace Museum in Taipei, who told me he was teaching in Taiwan. In the same afternoon I also saw some people handing out anti-Tibetan Buddhist literature, bilingual with Chinese and English, complete with shock images of tantric coupling deities, denouncing this as absolute heresy. The Dalai Lama has also been warmly received in Taiwan before, despite the objections of at least one major Buddhist leader in Taiwan, namely Venerable Xingyun of Foguangshan, objecting to his visits.

Still, while individuals themselves might take an interest and even practice Tibetan Buddhism, and there might be scholars who study Tibetan, I don't think an orthodox Chinese lineage would readily absorb many practices from their Tibetan cousins. Although at one point most of the Sinosphere (China, Korea and Japan) had its own form of Vajrayāna developed during the Tang Dynasty, it was eradicated on the mainland and only survives today in Japan with Shingon and Tendai, with small pockets of it also in Taiwan and America. However, it is yoga-tantra, and not being anuttara-yoga-tantra it lacks consort visualizations and practices. The former would be acceptable, but not the latter. Consort practices and even the artwork would not go over well, even for non-monastics, as orthodox Chinese Buddhism tends to be puritanical at times, really stressing celibacy even for ordinary laypersons.

This all said, I am speaking of Chinese and Tibetan Buddhism as I understand it outside of the PRC – there might be some positive interaction between the two traditions in provinces like Gansu and Sichuan where you have both Han Chinese and Tibetans living in close proximity to each other.

In any case, I hope people can realize the value in taking an ecumenical approach to Buddhism. One need not limit oneself to just one cultural development of Buddhism as there is wisdom to be found all over the world.

Footnotes:

1 Tsong-kha-pa Blo-bzan-grags-pa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment. Volume One. Translated by the Lamrim Chenmo Translation Committee (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2000), 109.

2Ibid., 112.

3Citation from the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra. 《說無垢稱經》卷1〈1 序品〉：「若於虛空終不能成」(CBETA, T14, no. 476, p. 559, a25)

4(CBETA, X58, no. 1004, p. 425, b23-c6 // Z 2:8, p. 303, a17-b6 // R103, p. 605, a17-b6)

5Meeting of Minds. Translated by Wang Ming Yee, Geshe Thubten Jinpa and Guo-gu. Edited by Lindley Hanlon and Ernest Heau. Dharma Drum Mountain, 35-38.

Compassion and Gratitude

2011-10-25T14:56:00.006+09:00

In Mahāyāna Buddhism it is often said, “All beings my mothers”. This seems to be more popular an expression amongst Tibetan Buddhists, though the same expression, sometimes said “all beings my mothers and fathers”, is also found in East Asia.

In short, this expression refers to the profound vision of reality where one perceives all beings, from the smallest insects to the gods and everyone and anything else, as your mothers. In Buddhist cosmology, regardless of the tradition, culture or time period, time is seen infinite because otherwise it would violate the observable law of conventional causality – that is to say things arise due to causes, and those causes in themselves must have their own respective causes as well. This rules out a creator deity not subject to causes yet still responsible for creation of time and space. On the same point we can indeed infer that there is no start point in time because that start point, if it did exist, would likewise occur without a cause, which is fallacious. Thus we say the past is infinite.

Now, given that the past is infinite, and that as a sentient being you have been reborn infinite times, it logically follows that all other beings have at some point been your mother, who unconditionally showed compassion and loving kindness toward you.

This is an extremely profound vision of reality that all too often gets lightly tossed around. There are many who utter such a phrase, but it hardly reflects in their behaviour towards others. If you truly felt even your fellow humans were your mothers, would you ever talk down to them, intentionally work against them or show them contempt? I'm guilty of this myself, but the more I cultivate this sense of unconditional gratitude the less contempt and anger I feel towards others – even those who have intentionally harmed or cheated me.

This vision forms the basis for unconditional compassion and gratitude towards all beings. This assumes of course you have conviction in rebirth. If you don't actually think of rebirth as realistic, then seeing all beings as your mothers will prove fruitless. It will just be a novel visualization that amounts to a religious fantasy rather than being a transformative experience. Being that most individuals brought up in industrialized cultures have a materialistic view of their own existence (meaning they do not think of rebirth as realistic, even if they proclaim a “belief” in it), I fear this kind of practice will be largely ineffective. This is unfortunately just a sign of our degenerate age. In Hindu thought, which curiously in some circles predicted the eventual rise of widespread materialism, this is the kaliyuga. In Buddhist thought the term kaliyuga is utilized in Tibetan Buddhism while elsewhere alternative terminology is employed such as the “dharma ending” age (Chn. mofa / Jpn. mappō 末法). Basically, that religious practice is becoming increasingly ineffective due to increasingly defiled minds and the proliferation of wrong views is a sign of our degenerate age.

That being said, it isn't impossible. This sort of approach to sentient beings, from lowly insects at your feet to both your good friends and hated human foes, also leads one towards an even greater vision where all beings are not just your mothers, but are seen as buddhas (i.e. fully enlightened, ultimately compassionate and completely free of any and all mental afflictions). Allow me to quote the famous Indian Buddhist thinker Shantideva.

“The great compassionate lords consider as themselves

All beings – there's no doubt of this.

Those whom I perceive as beings are Buddhas in themselves;

How can I not treat them with respect?”

Hence it is also said that a bodhisattva prostrates themselves before all beings. This is not for some superficial demonstration of having rid oneself of pride. This is both an expression of utmost gratitude towards all beings who in the infinite past have shown you great kindness, but also you recognize that a buddha, having taken the universe as its body, essentially coalesces with all resident beings in reality. As Shantideva states they “consider as themselves all beings”. In China there is a story about a monk who bowed before everyone he met, considering them buddhas. Whether or not this truly happened or not is unimportant – what is important is the ideal. Genuine humility and reverence towards everyone. Again, it must be stressed that such a perception of reality is extremely profound and I think for most individuals, myself included, this takes many years of practice, if not several lifetimes. The result would be eradicating from one's mind all contempt, hatred, jealousy and ill-will, while simultaneously really thinking of other beings as just as important as yourself, if not more.

So, how does one cultivate such a vision? I am of course not enlightened and cannot provide definite instructions to the end of path I myself have not taken as of yet. However, a journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step under your feet, and I would hopefully be able to say I have taken that step.

I think that first step is simply stopping to consider – seriously consider and think over – the kindness others have shown you. There is no seeking of a metaphysical undercurrent or contemplation of philosophy necessary for this. One need only reflect on the fact that countless individuals, and perhaps even some animals you might be acquainted with, have indeed been kind and generous towards you.

They might not always have done so – on the contrary, they might have harmed you at some point. However, in such a situation keep in mind that when struck with a stick one does not blame the stick, but the purported agent wielding said weapon; meanwhile one is unaware that the agent is only carrying out this action because of afflictive emotions active in their mind. You don't blame or resent the stick because you think the agent wielding it is responsible. However, why blame the agent when they're only behaving as such due to afflictive emotions. Blame those defilements, not the person. In the same sense you do not blame a senile person hurling slander your way because you recognize their actions are dictated by a painful and degenerate state of mind. Anger, which drives the agent to strike you with the stick, is basically the same thing: a degenerate state of mind.

In any case, reacting with similar sentiments of anger or worse violence will only harm oneself. As Milarepa said, “If you abhor your own suffering, cease harming others.” This also means cease returning blow for blow. It only leads to your own misery.

Having considered the generosity and kindness others have shown you, consider the potential that in past lives at some point all beings have indeed shown such good-will towards you. Given the fact of infinite past as outlined above, we can indeed infer this to be the case. This should summon a sense of gratitude. We never hope harm will come to those who have been good, honest and generous with us. We wish them well and want to repay their kindness with positive deeds. Having expanded this sense of gratitude to encompass all the people we encounter, both familiar and stranger, we might let it include our animal and insect friends as well. I know that might sound odd to many readers – “insect friends” is not something you usually say (at least not without the risk of being called a lunatic), but it is possible to cultivate a sense of good-will towards those creatures in the world so unlike us in terms of genetics, physiology and size.

One then puts this into action. Feed stray dogs. Restrain yourself from killing annoying flies. Give generously to those who are in need expecting no recognition for the good deed as it really is just reciprocation for their past benevolence towards you. Be like Milarepa who let the maggots have their share of his food despite being destitute and on the brink of starvation in a cave.

If you can seriously accept the good deeds all beings, without exception, have shown to you in this and past lives, then recognizing them as your mothers will prove an easy further step to take, which further can lead to seeing even those cockroaches crawling at the bottom of the rubbish bin as buddhas. At that point you can genuinely prostrate before all sentient beings and truly have no sense of pride or contempt towards anything at all.

Being free of all ill-will the conditions for negative karma to be enacted against beings will not exist. The result of negative karma is our own suffering and having eradicated the cause, the resultant effect cannot arise.

Incidentally, this kind of practice has a benefit to meditation as well. It helps in eradicating the hindrance of ill-will, which prevents cultivation of meditative absorption. Hindrances like desire, doubt and so on also need to be addressed, but ill-will is something which plagues our minds, though it is of course possible to overcome.

Thus, to think “all beings my mothers” is not mere sentimentality, but a spiritual practice that can be employed to rid oneself of ill-will, which is a factor in creating negative karma, whose result is always one's own suffering, as well as doing away with a hindrance which prevents deep meditative stabilization, which is necessary for cultivating the mental fitness necessary for realizing emptiness.

Meditation Retreat

2011-08-21T00:23:00.009+09:00

This year has been quite eventful for me. I have also maintained a good level of productivity so far. Earlier this year I travelled throughout India, Nepal, China and Japan visiting numerous holy Buddhist sites. I also finished translating one book of Buddhist themed short stories by Venerable Nakamura Gyōmyō from Japanese into English. I also translated two of the late Chan Master Sheng Yen's sūtra commentaries along with the respective sūtras themselves. These will all be published sometime this year or later next year. On top of that I also finished writing my MA thesis in Japanese, not English, and successfully defended it, thus concluding my studies at Komazawa University here in Tokyo.

While I had originally intended to continue my studies and proceed into a PhD program elsewhere, my application was not accepted. In retrospect I should have applied to numerous institutions, but I thought if I did not get into the desired program, then I would do something other than academia for at least the next few years.

As fortune would have it I was given the opportunity to do an extended meditation retreat in Ladakh, the northern state in India nestled in the Himalayas bordering Tibet and Xinjiang. After some consideration I decided to pursue this option as I feel now would be an optimal time to engage in a lengthy and dedicated meditation retreat by myself. I am young, healthy and free of obligations. Moreover, after a number of years of practising meditation in urban areas, I think it best to go somewhere isolated, quiet and free of disturbances. A temple in the Himalayas seems like a suitable location in which to pursue full-time meditation for five to six months.

I plan to work on śamatha together with a comprehensive rereading of Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā (Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way; 中論). The following quote by Nāgārjuna in his Letter to a Friend actually prescribes this sort of practice stating the following:

"There can be no dhyāna without wisdom;
There can be no wisdom without dhyāna.
He who has both reduces the ocean of existence,
To the size of an ox's hoofprint."

At the same time I want to read through a lengthy commentary on said treatise by the Sanlun 三論 patriarch Jizang 吉藏 (549-623). As of late I have taken an interest in Jizang's work and his thought, which truly complements my study of Nāgārjuna. Jizang himself was of Persian ancestry, but born and raised in China. Incidentally he lived during the same years as another famous Mādhyamaka thinker Candrakīrti (600-c. 650). Jizang's thought has much in common with prasaṅgika, which indeed might be suitable study to pursue at some point in the future. Anyway, after several months of reading Jizang extensively I imagine I will have much to say about his thought.

I am quite looking forward to this retreat. I feel as if all my academic learning can be put to practical use in a very serious way at last. I have the utmost respect for scholarly research of Buddhism, but as a Buddhist I have to weigh scholarly endeavours on one hand against actual practical implementation of it in real life. Buddhology ideally possesses a practical component, though of course this is not normally so in academia.

As I will be in exodus from the internet for at least half a year starting September I might not update this blog during that time. However, I compiled much of what I have written over the last two to three years into one site for the benefit of anyone who might make use of it. Some of the materials on it are from this blog, but neatly organized and formatted for ease of use. It is my hope that anything I have written can be of benefit to others:

Dharma Depository

The most recent article, posted today, concerns Saichō's monastic reforms. See here.

As for the future I have no definite plans. I will just play it by ear and see what comes.

Kūkai's Vajra and Bell

2011-08-02T16:46:00.008+09:00

Today I had the good fortune to be able to see the original vajra and bell bestowed unto Kūkai 空海 (774–835) by his teacher Huiguo 惠果 (746–805) in the early 9th century in China. The Tokyo National Museum is presently running an exhibition of esoteric Buddhist art and artifacts until September 25th, 2011.

(Click for larger view)

The craftsmanship of the artifacts is indeed superb, but moreover the history of these items summons visions of an enlightened master in Tang China passing them to a humble disciple. The reality of course is that this really happened. Huiguo gave these items to Kūkai, who brought them back to Japan and his lineage has taken good care of them ever since. These are classified as a national treasure in Japan. It is also interesting that they are still used on special occasions.

The exhibition also contained the following intriguing sculpture which was originally made in China and brought back to Japan in 847 by E'un 惠運 (798-869), a disciple of one of Kūkai's chief disciples. It is Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva 虛空藏菩薩, or more specifically the Lotus Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva.

It is in quite good condition considering its age. Japan is blessed with many aged old wooden sculptures that have been well preserved over the centuries. This particular piece was imported from China in the late Tang Dynasty. Interestingly, E'un brought this over in 847, just two years after the great persecution of 845, which saw a sweeping state ordered destruction of Buddhist institutions across the empire. I have to wonder if this sculpture was made before or after the persecution. If it was before, then it fortunately survived the chaos.

The exhibit also included a few genuine examples of Kūkai's own handwriting. Again, we are quite fortunate that such items were so well preserved over time. There are a number of extant documents personally penned by Kūkai, which enables scholars to study his calligraphy style. We also have some of his notebooks, which include notes in the margins and blotted out patches where he made an error.

I greatly appreciate these kinds of exhibitions. I have always enjoyed history and when it comes to Buddhist artifacts I relish them all the more. Buddhism has always valued its own history and whether it be Buddha relics or a lineage founder's personal possessions the tradition has been to preserve items of the past so that future generations can venerate them while cultivating both emotional and spiritual ties to one's lineage.

Ācala Vidyārāja 不動明王 (Japan, 11th century)

The Significance of Pilgrimage

2011-08-01T04:30:00.009+09:00

As of late I have been reflecting on the pilgrimage I undertook earlier this year around India and Nepal, which I extended somewhat into China and finally Japan. I documented the trip on this blog complete with photographs, but also compiled all of the entries into a single page available here.

It was without a doubt the most significant trip I have ever taken in my life and probably more valuable than my MA degree in terms of what I learned along the way. It was not only intellectually intriguing, what with coming face to face with the holy sites of Buddhism in India and Nepal, but also quite an emotionally powerful experience for me.

In the Maha-parinibbana Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16) the Buddha outlines the significance of undertaking a pilgrimage.

"Ananda, there are four places the sight of which will arouse strong emotion in those with faith. Which four? 'Here the Tathagata was born', this is the first place. 'Here the Tathagata attained Enlightenment', this is the second place. 'Here the Tathagata set in motion the Wheel of the Dhamma', this is the third place. 'Here the Tathagata attained final Nirvana without remainder', this is the fourth place. The monk or nun, layman or laywoman, who has faith should visit these places. "

I visited all four of these sites. The first one was Bodh Gaya, the place where the Buddha was enlightened under the Bodhi Tree. As I stepped into the precincts of Mahābodhi Temple where the Bodhi Tree is enclosed my mind became calm and quiet. I found myself speechless. I wandered around slowly feeling both great awe and another emotion I cannot describe. I finally sat down on a cold stone bench under a grey sky, which had only just stopped drizzling, and tears uncontrollably streamed down my face as I gazed toward the center of the complex where the Bodhi Tree stands. I felt something akin to relief coupled with immense joy. I sensed that many lives ago I had sought to come to this place, yet was never able. I reflected on the great merit and good fortune I must have to be able to come to such a sacred place.

I had similar emotionally moving experiences at the other sites.

Venerable Dhammika has a good site detailing the history of Bodh Gaya. He explains the emotional value taking a pilgrimage might have on a person.

Going to a place made sacred by the Buddha's presence, or even the process of getting there, can have a similar effect. On the open road, away from mundane preoccupations and familiar surroundings, the pilgrim has time to think about his or her life and practice of the Dhamma. The arduous but steady progress towards the goal may become analogous to the pilgrim's journey on the Eightfold Path and stimulate the determination to walk that Path with more commitment. On finally reaching the goal, the pilgrim will see places and sights associated with the Buddha which can arouse intense faith and provide the opportunity for deep contemplation.

I have to agree with his remarks here. The journey leaves one with a lot of time to contemplate while on the onward path. One must also maintain a steady mind in the face of obstacles which inevitably arise along the way. In my case having to deal with dodgy auto-rickshaw drivers, professional touts and dodgy merchants were all opportunities for practising patience. I remind myself though that in the past it was armed bandits who harassed travellers, not irritating touts.

Now, it was not just visiting the sacred sites that proved edifying, but the people I met along the way.

In Bodh Gaya it was just by sheer chance that I ran into a Tibetan Buddhist nun whom I knew from back in Canada at the old temple I was a member of. I was in an internet cafe and turned my head to see a familiar face and sure enough it was somebody I knew. I had no knowledge that she was going to be in Bodh Gaya and the sheer chance of encountering her was certainly astronomically unlikely. What good fortune and auspicious that meeting was. We enjoyed several cups of coffee and caught up.

In Lumbini I also happened by chance to meet a certain somewhat famous monk by the name of Bhikkhu Buddhadhatu, who was leading a number of pilgrims from Laos to the birthplace of the Buddha. With a warm smile and kind words he invited me to join him in his prayers for world peace. What good fortune I had to be able to meet such a good natured and benevolent monk, especially at Lumbini.

I also had another chance encounter with a certain internet acquaintance in front of the stūpa at Boudhanath in Kathmandu, Nepal. While I had told him I might be going to Kathmandu, we had not been in contact and he was unaware I was in the city. Just by chance I turned the corner towards the stūpa and saw him much to our mutual surprise. If I had decided to spend a few more moments in the shop I had been in earlier or had simply decided not to return to Boudhanath that day I certainly would not have encountered him in such an auspicious manner in front of the stūpa.

I am of the mind that all these events were not mere chance, but karma ripening at very opportune moments. One chance encounter with a Buddhist friend is one thing, but having two in the space of a few weeks is something else. Moreover the emotions I felt sitting under the Bodhi Tree or at the site of the Buddha's death were not at all mere fascination. They gushed up from some deep part of my existence beyond this life. I have always felt affectionate towards Buddhism. As a youth I did not understand why, but I had positive sentiments and attraction towards images of the Buddha, monastics and all the complementary Buddhist cultural accessories from various countries. As a scholar I never get bored of studying the subject. I always find it refreshing and appealing.

As for the future I will probably be returning to Bodh Gaya again first thing next year to receive the Kālacakra initiation from His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Sometime in the future I would also like to travel more around China, especially Mount Wutai, which is said to be the earthly abode of Mañjuśrī. If possible doing the trek around Mount Kailash, which is within the borders of China neighbouring India, would also be desirable. There are even many sites around Korea, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Indonesia worth visiting, too. I hope in this lifetime to visit them all. Travel is something I quite relish if only for the edifying efficacy it possesses when done right.

No need for quantum jungian ego in Buddhism.

2011-07-28T06:16:00.010+09:00

In contemporary Buddhist literature, at least in the English language, there is a frequent tendency amongst authors to frame Buddhist ideas in the context of western psychology, philosophy and western science, as if to justify Buddhist ideas not on their own merits, but by drawing comparisons and similarities with what, at least by present day agreement, are innovative and realistic ideas. This is not necessarily wrong or misguided, and there is indeed plenty of precedence for it in the past, but I believe one flaw that these kind of works possess is that they will be largely worthless and unreadable to all but a few scholars in future centuries, if not decades. Such works are also prone to generate misunderstandings amongst general readers.

This same thing has happened before. For example, throughout the centuries of Buddhism in China there were many authors who wrote treatises attempting to justify Buddhist thought by drawing parallels between it and Confucianism and/or commonly accepted Daoist metaphysics. One such pertinent example of this is the work of Hanshan Deqing 憨山德淸 (1546–1623) where he asserted that the three teachings of the Buddha, Confucius and Laozi were indeed of the same principle. Consider the following quote from his work.

《憨山老人夢遊集》卷45：「孔子則曰知止而後有定。又曰明明德。然知明即了悟之意。佛言止觀。則有三乘止觀。人天止觀。淺深之不同。若孔子乃人乘止觀也。老子乃天乘止觀也。然雖三教止觀。淺深不同。要其所治之病。俱以先破我執為第一步工夫。」¹

Confucius said, “The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined.” He also speaks of illustrating illustrious virtue and thus we know that “illustrious” has the meaning of complete realization. The Buddha spoke of [the meditative methods of] cessation and observation (Chn. zhǐguān 止觀; Skt. śamatha-vipaśyanā), of which there are the cessation and observation [methods] of the three vehicles and those of gods and men, the depths of which are not the same. In the case of Confucius it is the cessation and observation [methods] of men. In the case of Laozi it is the cessation and observation [methods] of gods. Thus, although in the three teachings [of Buddha, Laozi and Confucius] there are cessation and observation [methods], their depths are not the same. Together they regard destroying self-attachment as the first primary training for the ailment that must be treated.

It is very clear that he is reading into Laozi and Confucius by asserting that they teach meditation methods really only appropriate to Buddhism in this context. Let's look at the full passage that he is citing from the section Great Learning 大學 in the Liji 禮記.

大學之道，在明明德，在親民，在止於至善。知止而後有定，定而後能靜，靜而後能安，安而後能慮，慮而後能得。物有本末，事有終始，知所先後，則近道矣。

What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.²

It is clear this passage is not to be read as a kind of yogic endeavour the statesman to whom the text is directed at should engage in. However, we should keep in mind in the sixteenth century readers of this work would have known more or less what exactly he was talking about and perhaps found such sentiments interesting, if not vindicating. If you have Confucius giving a nod to your meditation you must be on the right track. Likewise, some present day Buddhists, particularly in western countries, might feel vindicated when a famous western thinker speaks favourably of Buddhism. Take for example Bertrand Russell's remarks:

Buddhism is a combination of both speculative and scientific philosophy. It advocates the scientific method and pursues that to a finality that may be called Rationalistic. In it are to be found answers to such questions of interest as: 'What is mind and matter? Of them, which is of greater importance? Is the universe moving towards a goal? What is man's position? Is there living that is noble?' It takes up where science cannot lead because of the limitations of the latter's instruments. Its conquests are those of the mind.

Anyone with an education in sixteenth century China would have known the aforementioned passage form the Liji. It would have lent further justification to Buddhist readers wanting to legitimize their activities in the social environment they found themselves in. The upper echelons of society were not necessarily Buddhist, just like in present day western societies, and any Buddhist wanting to justify themselves and their institutions in society would have be inclined to secure some kind of nod from the elite schools of thought. It was not absolutely necessary, but comforting to have nevertheless.

This is not really so different from present day Buddhists who seek to legitimize their thought by drawing parallels, either real or envisioned, between their Buddhism and western psychology, quantum physics, feminism and/or some other contemporary and fashionable line of thought in vogue with the contemporary intelligentsia. It just somehow makes you feel justified in your system of thought and spiritual practice if at least some elements of state sponsored western psychology and/or members of the quantum physics community show appreciation for your tradition. Likewise in medieval China a Buddhist would have perhaps felt more at ease knowing that they were not running completely contrary to the orthodox institutions of thought based on Confucius and to some degree on Laozi.

One problem that needs to be recognized in the case of Hanshan's text is that it is not timeless. It is intriguing to read as a scholar, but a Buddhist reader without suitable background knowledge of Confucius and Laozi would probably find such a work difficult to appreciate. This is actually the case with most Chan texts as well in that they are time period specific and very difficult to read because they are made up of allusions to what at the time were commonly understood ideas, stories and people. At the time such literature was useful and educational, but after a few centuries, decades in some cases perhaps, it was only a few dedicated scholars who could read such things and only with extensive background knowledge. Nowadays you might have Zen or Chan practitioners attempting to read such works in translation, but having studied the original source texts I can say that Chan records are generally open to multiple interpretations of which no translation can do justice to. You cannot translate those works so much as you just interpret them into a new version that may or may not explicitly reflect the ambiguity of the original texts.

Now in contrast to this there are plenty of works in Chinese Buddhism which are timeless in the sense that they use more or less standardized Buddhist vocabulary, reference only canonical texts, as opposed to obscure mundane literary works as one might find in Chan records, and do not employ literary or fanciful language. For example the works of Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597 CE) are still easily understandable by modern readers of Chinese, even with minimal understanding of Literary Chinese. His works after close to fifteen-hundred years are still quite readable and easily understood. That is indeed quality authorship.

Now I fear that some works on Buddhism in present times will become quickly antiquated. How many people will care or know much about Jung in half a century, or a century from now? Is it really necessary to justify Buddhist ideas through Jungian thought? Are the ground breaking theories of quantum physics of recent decades going to hold up to scientific scrutiny in the coming decades, or will it go the way of ether into the history books of outdated cosmology? That being said, there are some works in recent decades that I think will retain a kind of timeless quality. Works that read and explain Buddhism on its own terms, not through a lens of a non-Buddhist ideology. The works of Bhikku Bodhi, Sheng Yen, Vesna Wallace and Nakamura Hajime, among others, will still be readable, useful and insightful in a hundred years. Quality scholarship and authorship that will endure the test of time.

What I am proposing is that instead of trying to understand Buddhism on its own terms a lot of authors prefer to present Buddhism as it relates to other non-Buddhist fields. For the sake of accomplishing didactic aims this is perhaps useful in some cases, but I feel quite often it is misleading. The worst example of this is the tendency in English to translate Buddhist terms using commonly known vocabulary from western psychology, the most common example of this is translating ātman as ego. Ego in western psychology must be understood as paired with id, which is further connected with theories of an “unconscious”. This has no basis in Buddhist thought. It is not Buddhism. The term anātman is so often misunderstood as a result. You will have people speculating about how “egolessness” relates to an “unconscious mind” and how they must “destroy the ego” as a spiritual practice. A similar problem occurred in the early history of Buddhism in China when translators were using metaphysical terms drawn from Daoist texts for Buddhist terms. It led to misunderstandings.

We now have sufficient numbers of scholarly works and reference materials to understand Buddhism through Buddhist traditions as Buddhadharma without having to defer to or make use of non-Buddhist works. This is not to say we ignore what other fields and traditions of knowledge have to say, but only that we need not use them as a crutch or seek their approval in elucidating and developing Buddhist thought. We can go beyond having to relate Buddhism to some other familiar western tradition of knowledge, using it as a kind of desirable though really unnecessary crutch, and comprehend Buddhism as Buddhadharma.

-----------------------

1(CBETA, X73, no. 1456, p. 771, c1-5 // Z 2:32, p. 414, c10-14 // R127, p. 828, a10-14)

2James Legge translation here.

Suffering in Buddhism

2011-07-16T22:33:00.006+09:00

In Buddhism one often hears of the three kinds of suffering (tri-duḥkhatā). This is one broad classification for categorizing the general characteristics of suffering (duḥkha) in Buddhism. For the purposes of this post I want to consider the meanings of these terms as well as the potential ramifications this concept has on a person. I would argue that two conclusions are easily drawn if one accepts the reality of suffering as described below. Firstly, that there is no lasting happiness in life. Secondly, the only logical course of action to take is to seek liberation.

Let us begin by examining the words of Asaṅga (4^th century) in his work the Abhidharma-samuccaya.

It is said there are three forms of suffering. The eight kinds of suffering are included in them [birth, ageing, disease, death, association with the unpleasant, separation from the pleasant, not obtaining what one desires and five aggregates of attachment]. In that case are the eight included in the three, or are the three in the eight? They are grouped according to their own order: the sufferings of birth, ageing, disease, death, and association with what is unpleasant are mere sufferings (duḥkha-duḥkhatā); the sufferings of separation from what is pleasant and and not obtaining what one desires are sufferings caused by transformation (vipariṇāma-duḥkhatā); in brief, the five aggregates of attachment are suffering as suffering caused by conditioned states (saṃskāra-duḥkha).¹

The “suffering of suffering” (duḥkha-duḥkhatā) is easily understood as the common physical pains we experience throughout life such as disease and dying. Most would agree that such experiences cause mental unease and are undesirable.

The “suffering of change” or otherwise known as the “suffering of transformation” (vipariṇāma-duḥkhatā) is the suffering experienced due to the immutable fact that all conditioned phenomena are impermanent and subject to decay. The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary defines the word vipariṇāma as “change , exchange , transformation”. As Asaṅga points out the separation from what is pleasant is included within this type of suffering. Put another way this is the failure of happy moments to last.

The analysis taken further will have one conclude that ordinary states of happiness or pleasure are actually just states of suffering. This is because upon ending they either result in a state of suffering or because they condition a being to attempt to reproduce the same experience, amplifying addiction to sensory pleasures. This is not say one should abandon anything that brings about pleasure, but it is best to identify and understand these states for what they are rather than what we would normally want them to be.

The “suffering caused by conditioned states” (saṃskāra-duḥkha) is, according to Asaṅga, the five aggregates of attachment, which are cause for agitation. The “five aggregates” (pañca-skandha) here refer to the five psycho-physical components which make up a person. They are form (rūpa), sensation (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), mental formations (saṃskāra) and consciousness (vijñāna). This might also be called a “mass of suffering” because every ordinary aspect of it fosters future conditioned existence which is ultimately unsatisfying. When I say “ordinary” this is in contrast to aspects directed towards liberation, such a willed intention to be liberated, whose result would be cessation of this mass of suffering, otherwise known as a sentient being.

After considering the three kinds of suffering it is clearly apparent that life is full of suffering. There is to be found no lasting or ultimately satisfying happiness in mundane pleasures and pursuits as it is all subject to decay and moreover conditions future unsatisfying existence. It is the desire for sensory pleasures (kāma) which propels a being through cyclic existence, otherwise known as saṃsāra, as it predisposes the psycho-physical process, which is the sentient being, towards action (karma) directed at the experience of agreeable sensation. All worldly pleasures and favourable sensations experienced are merely palliative opiates that dull the pain of existence without remedying the root source of the disease. There should never be an expectation that worldly pleasures and temporal success will ever be satisfying. They should be seen for what they are, rather than what we would want them to be.

It would be best here to point out that because rebirth or reincarnation is a core component of Buddhism there is no point in suggesting that “if you have nothing to live for and all is suffering, you might as well die” because death does not rob a person of the causes of suffering. In modern times the general conception of death, owing to influences from materialist thinking, is that upon cessation of activity in the brain there is a kind of oblivion awaiting the individual when all sense of subjectivity and awareness are effectively terminated and erased. This position has been argued against by numerous schools of thought, including the Buddhists, over the centuries in India and elsewhere but I shall not go into that discussion here. If you are interested in empirical evidence of rebirth I recommend looking into the research conducted at the University of Virginia's Division of Perceptual Studies. The point I should like to emphasize is simply that in the Buddhist model rebirth is a reality and unless one cures the causes for suffering then death will be of little aid to a person seeking relief.

Fortunately there is relief and liberation – known as the Third Noble Truth – the truth of nirvāṇa. This indeed is the goal of any Buddhist tradition. Nirvāṇa is to saṃsāra as health is to illness. Being that there is no ultimately satisfying happiness to be found in life and being that the process of birth and death will continue indefinitely life after life, one may be inclined to investigate a remedy to the illness. There really is no other alternative. In the Buddhist context this is the primary driving force behind what in English is termed “practice”. Buddhists like to talk about their “practice” and this refers to activities directed at the cessation of their suffering. These activities are generally classified into three categories called the “three trainings” (śikṣā-traya), which are moral disciple or ethics (śīla), meditation (samādhi) and wisdom (prajñā). Wisdom is generally only possible through having gained mental stamina via meditation, which is only possible if one lives a proper lifestyle free from harmful behaviours.

Liberation being the only goal worth seriously pursuing in life many dedicated Buddhist practitioners can and will engage in activities that most ordinary people would find unreasonable and intolerable. One such example would be extended meditation retreats, which might be done in a cave or deep in a forest, where one is free from all human interaction and entertainment. However, such activities are not necessarily painful. Someone adept in the yogic arts will experience bliss in meditation. In a more down to earth context another example of what ordinary people might find unreasonable would be the practitioner's willingness to forsake money, career, position, power, sex, romance and/or worldly success in favour of yogic endeavours.

While it may seem unreasonable to many people, the reality is that upon understanding the nature of suffering and the precarious situation we as unliberated beings find ourselves in there is no other alternative but to seek liberation and do whatever it takes to achieve that goal. The more one tastes the bitterness of saṃsāra, the more one seeks the liberation from it.

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1Asaṅga, Abhidharmasamucaya The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy) by Asaṅga, translated into French and annotated by Walpola Rahula, English version from the French by Sara Boin-Webb (Fremont: Asian Humanities Press, 2001), 85.

Nāgārjuna on Death

2011-07-05T01:39:00.007+09:00

"The God of Death does not wait to ask whether your (composite) works are completed or not.
Therefore do to-morrow's work to-day,
And the evening's work in the morning."

-Nāgārjuna
Tree of Wisdom

Fazang on the Fate of Arhats and Pratyekabuddhas

2011-07-01T07:48:00.007+09:00

In Mahāyāna thought there are numerous theories on the eventual fates of arhats and pratyekabuddhas. In Śrāvakayāna thought it is said that arhats, having eliminated all causes for future rebirth anywhere in the three realms, are forever free from saṃsāra and enter nirvāṇa. However, some strains of Mahāyāna have alternative ideas.

In my reading of the works of Fazang 法藏 (643–712) I have come to understand his position on the matter. Fazang's position is essentially that arhats and pratyekabuddhas are under the mistaken notion that their nirvāṇa is an absolute cessation of existence and that in fact they are reborn outside the three realms in a pure land, whereupon they receive a 'transformation body' and start the Mahāyāna path. Fazang cites numerous sūtras and śāstras to prove his point. He also makes use of a metaphysical explanation, asserting that if a sentient being had an ultimate end, it should have an ultimate beginning from which a 'non-sentient entity' would become a sentient entity.

Here I will outline in brief his canonical citations and his metaphysical reasoning.

First of all let us consider his summary of canonical citations proving his assertion that arhats and pratyekabuddhas are reborn outside the three realms.

《大乘法界無差別論疏》卷1：「又勝鬘經。無上依經。佛性論。寶性論。皆同說三界外。聲聞緣覺及大力菩薩。受三種變易身。又智論九十三。引法華第三釋云。有妙淨土。出過三界。阿羅漢當生其中。是故定知入滅二乘。滅麁分段名入涅槃。實有變易在淨土中。受佛教化行菩薩道。若不爾者。未迴心時既無變易。迴心已去。即是漸悟菩薩。不名二乘。故知於三界外所受變易。小乘以為涅槃。大乘深說。實是變易。本無涅槃。勝鬘云。聲聞緣覺。實無涅槃。唯如來有涅槃故。此論下云。應知唯有一乘道。若不爾者。異此應有餘涅槃故。同一法界。豈有下劣涅槃。勝妙涅槃耶。以此當知二乘之人既無涅槃。無不皆當得菩提故。一切眾生皆是所為也。」(CBETA, T44, no. 1838, p. 62, a26-b11)

Furthermore, the Śrīmālā-sūtra, Anuttarāśraya-sūtra, Treatise on Buddha Nature and Ratnagotravibhāga-mahāyānōttaratantra-śāstra all likewise explain [the rebirth of arhats and pratyekabuddhas] outside the three realms. Śrāvaka, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas of great power receive three kinds of transformation bodies. Furthermore, the Mahāprājñā-pāramitôpadeśa, quoting the third scroll of the Lotus Sūtra, explains that there is an excellent pure land beyond the three realms. Arhats are born within it. It is thus that we know for certain that the cessation of the two vehicles is the cessation of the coarse delimited saṃsāra which they call entering nirvāṇa. In truth they will possess a transformation body in the pure land, receive the Buddha's teachings and practice the bodhisattva path. If this were not so, then at the time they had not turned their minds [to the Mahāyāna] they would have no transformation [body], but upon turning their minds [to the Mahāyāna] they would be gradually realized bodhisattvas. They would not be called 'two vehicles'. Thus we know that it is outside the three realms that they receive the transformation [body]. The Hīnayāna thinks this is nirvāṇa. The Mahāyāna [has] a deeper explanation. In truth it is a transformation [body they receive]. Fundamentally there is no nirvāṇa [as the Hīnayāna would understand it]. The Śrīmālā-sūtra states that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas in truth have no nirvāṇa. It is only the tathāgata who has nirvāṇa.(1) This treatise [the Dasheng Fajie Wuchabie Lun 大乘法界無差別論] states below, “It should be understood that there is only the single vehicle path. If this were not so, it would be different from this as there would be another nirvāṇa. The same dharma-dhātu – how could there be an inferior nirvāṇa and a most excellent nirvāṇa?”(2) It is through these [citations] that we should understand that since those of the two vehicles [arhats and pratyekabuddhas] have no nirvāṇa, they will all attain bodhi, and thus all sentient beings are the object [of the aforementioned teaching].

These are potentially shocking statements – saying that there is no nirvāṇa. However, we need to keep in mind in this context 'nirvāṇa' refers to the absolute cessation of rebirth and existence, which is the goal of Śrāvakayāna teachings. The idea here is that there really is no absolute escape from our common reality, which for the unenlightened being is experienced as saṃsāra. This is not to deny the truth of the cessation of suffering. In Mahāyāna thought it is asserted that one can operate within common reality – even being reborn time and time again – without suffering, even experiencing it as bliss, provided wisdom and compassion are manifest.

The statement from the Mahāprājñā-pāramitôpadeśa he is citing is as follows.

問曰：阿羅漢先世因緣所受身必應當滅，住在何處而具足佛道？

答曰：得阿羅漢時，三界諸漏因緣盡，更不復生三界。有淨佛土，出於三界，乃至無煩惱之名，於是國土佛所，聞《法華經》，具足佛道。如《法華經》說：「有羅漢，若不聞《法華經》，自謂得滅度；我於餘國為說是事，汝皆當作佛。
(CBETA, T25, no. 1509, p. 714, a9-15)

Question -- Arhats in their past lives must have extinguished all the conditions and conditions to receive a new body. Where do they abide and perfect the Buddha's path?

Answer -- When one attains arhatship all contaminated causes and conditions of the three realms are extinguished and one is no longer reborn in the three realms. There is a pure Buddha-land beyond the three realms, even being without the word 'defilements'. In this realm, the place of the Buddha, they hear the Lotus Sūtra, and perfect the Buddha's path. As the Lotus Sūtra says, "There are arhats who, if they have not heard the Lotus Sūtra, think of themselves as having attained cessation. In another realm I explain this - you all will become buddhas."

One will notice that the text does not explicitly say arhats are reborn in this pure buddha-realm outside the three realms. However, it seems logical to read it as such given that the question is where arhats reside after they pass away and how do they achieve buddhahood. Other writers like Jizang (549–623) 吉藏 interpret this passage in the same way.(3) I think this is the logical way to understand this passage as well. The other thing to note is that there is no mention here of a 'transformation body' (變易身), which is actually an idea obtained from other texts.

As to his metaphysical reasoning for absolute cessation of all existence being untenable he explains in greater detail why there is no 'end of ashes and eternal cessation' (無灰斷永滅) for the two vehicles in his work entitled the Commentary on the Undiscriminated Mahāyāna Dharmadhātu Śāstra 《大乘法界無差別論疏》 by citing a passage from the Ghana-vyūha-sūtra 《密嚴經》 and elaborating the metaphysical reasons why such a permanent cessation is untenable.

《大乘法界無差別論疏》卷1：「密嚴第一頌云。涅槃若滅壞。眾生有終盡。眾生若有終。是亦有初際。應有非生法。而始作眾生。解云。此亦是聖教。亦是正理。若入寂二乘灰斷永滅。則是眾生作非眾生。若令眾生作非眾生。則應有非眾生而始作眾生。」(CBETA, T44, no. 1838, p. 62, a18-23)

A verse in the Ghana-vyūha-sūtra states, “If nirvāṇa were cessation, then a sentient being will have a complete end. If a sentient being has an end, then there should also be a beginning time. There should be a non-sentient dharma that starts being a sentient being.” Interpretation – This is the holy teaching and is also the right principle. If one were to enter into extinction, the two vehicles' 'end of ashes and eternal cessation', then this sentient being would become a non-sentient being. If a sentient being is made into a non-sentient being, then there should be non-sentient beings beginning to be sentient beings.

Fazang is arguing here that arhats and pratyekabuddhas cannot achieve an absolute cessation – that is to say, using his vocabulary, becoming a non-sentient entity – because it would follow that since a sentient entity could become a non-sentient entity, then a non-sentient entity should be able to become a sentient entity. If a sentient being has an ultimate absolute end, then it should also have a beginning according to him. For Fazang this would be equal to saying that an uncontaminated dharma could give rise to a contaminated dharma. He references the Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi-śāstra to demonstrate this point.

《大乘法界無差別論疏》卷1：「唯識論中。說有漏生於無漏。則難勿無漏法還生有漏。今亦例同。既眾生入滅同非眾生。勿非眾生法而還作眾生。」(CBETA, T44, no. 1838, p. 62, a23-26)

In the Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi-śāstra it is explained that [if it is suggested that] the contaminated is produced in the uncontaminated, then the criticism is that there are no uncontaminated phenomena still producing the contaminated. Now the precedent is the same since sentient beings would enter cessation and be the same as a 'non-sentient being', [but] there are no 'non-sentient being' phenomena that still produce sentient beings.

One could respond by asking if a sentient being is doomed to exist as such without any possibility of transcending the state of being a sentient being. Moreover, how is it a sentient being becomes a buddha which is not a sentient being? Again, one must take into consideration the context in which this argument is being put forth. Fazang is arguing that sentient beings by virtue of being sentient entities cannot become non-sentient entities completely detached from reality, isolated in a nirvāṇa apart from all other beings. Sentient beings can, however, attain buddhahood where while not being a 'sentient being' they still actively interact with reality and all the sentient beings within it. This is an emotionally charged idea that one can still work within saṃsāra without being adversely affected by it.

Fazang's own sentiments are clear in the following statement by him:

《修華嚴奧旨妄盡還源觀》卷1：「觀色即空成大智而不住生死。觀空即色成大悲而不住涅槃。以色空無二。悲智不殊。」(CBETA, T45, no. 1876, p. 638, b1-3)

Seeing that form is emptiness manifests great wisdom and one does not abide in saṃsāra. Seeing that emptiness is form manifests great compassion and one does not abide in nirvāṇa. When form and emptiness are non-dual, compassion and wisdom are not different.

Still, I think his arguments would not satisfy a lot of people and raise many more questions. For example, from a Śrāvakayāna perspective one could argue that sentient beings do not become 'non-sentient beings', but rather just that upon attaining arhatship and passing away the causes and conditions for a sentient being to arise simply cease like a candle light being snuffed out. However, the Mahāyāna proponent could defer to canonical scriptures which indeed state arhats are reborn outside the three realms and eventually achieve buddhahood, though the Śrāvakayāna proponent would not accept this.

As I said above there are multiple theories on this matter. Fazang's ideas outlined above represent the views of just one thinker. He was a prolific writer and over the centuries many others read his works not only in China, but also in Korea and Japan. He no doubt influenced his posterity and so his ideas are worth special consideration.

Footnotes:

1 See the following. 《勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經》卷1：「阿羅漢辟支佛有怖畏。是故阿羅漢辟支佛。有餘生法不盡故。有生有餘梵行不成故。不純事不究竟故。當有所作。不度彼故。當有所斷。以不斷故。去涅槃界遠。何以故。唯有如來應正等覺得般涅槃。成就一切功德故。阿羅漢辟支佛。不成就一切功德。言得涅槃者。是佛方便。唯有如來得般涅槃。成就無量功德故。阿羅漢辟支佛。成就有量功德。」(CBETA, T12, no. 353, p. 219, c1-9)

2 See the following. 《大乘法界無差別論》卷1：「復次應知。唯有一乘道若不爾者。異此應有餘涅盤故。同一法界豈有下劣涅盤勝妙涅盤耶。」(CBETA, T31, no. 1626, p. 894, a18-20)

3 See the following. 《勝鬘寶窟》卷2：「問。無漏云何是業。...答。即此無漏作意之義。故名為業。生羅漢業。是變易果。生相云何。如智度論云。有妙淨土。出過三界。是阿羅漢當生彼中。」(CBETA, T37, no. 1744, p. 54, a18-21)

Xuanzang's 7th Century Account of Nepal

2011-06-26T22:08:00.005+09:00

Earlier this year I had the good fortune to be able to visit Nepal for the first time. My journey into Nepal started with crossing the Indian-Nepalese border and proceeding to Lumbinī, the birthplace of the Buddha. From there I took a twelve-hour bus ride to Kathmandu. I spent a week or so before leaving. Overall I enjoyed my stay and found the Nepalese people friendly and welcoming.

Today I came across the following passage written by the famous Buddhist pilgrim and author Xuanzang 玄奘 (602 – 664) where he describes Nepal with both praise and reproach.

《大唐西域記》卷7：「尼波羅國，周四千餘里，在雪山中。國大都城周二十餘里。山川連屬，宜穀稼，多花菓，出赤銅、犛牛、命命鳥。貨用赤銅錢。氣序寒烈，風俗險詖，人性剛獷，信義輕薄。無學藝，有工巧。形貌醜弊，邪正兼信。伽藍、天祠接堵連隅。僧徒二千餘人，大小二乘，兼功綜習。外道異學，其數不詳。王，剎帝利栗呫婆種也。志學清高，純信佛法。近代有王，號鴦輸伐摩(唐言光胄)。碩學聰叡，自製《聲明論》，重學敬德，遐邇著聞。都城東南有小水池，以人火投之，水即焰起，更投餘物，亦變為火。」(CBETA, T51, no. 2087, p. 910, b14-24)

Nepāl has a circumference of over four-thousand li and is located in snowy mountains. The country's capital city has a circumference of over twenty li. Mountains and rivers are continuous and are good for grains and many fruits. It produces red copper, yaks and jīvajīvaka birds. As a currency they use red copper coins. The weather is cold and frigid. The local customs are rugged and base. The temperament of the people is tough and boorish. Their trustworthiness is lacking. They are unlearned, but possess exquisite skills. Their appearance is ugly and shabby. They believe in both the wicked and good. Buddhist and Brahminical temples are back to back. There are over two-thousand Buddhist monks. Both the Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna are practised together. I am unsure about the number of externalists.

The king is a kṣatriya and belongs to the Licchavi. He is learned, pure and sincere in his faith in the Buddhadharma. In recent times there was a king named Aṃśuvarmā who was erudite and ingenious. He himself composed a treatise entitled the Śabdavidyā-śāstra, [which is a treatise on words and their meanings]. He valued learning and respected virtue. His reputation spread far and wide.

South-east of the capital there is a small pond. When people throw fire on it the water erupts into flames. It also changes to fire when other items are thrown into it.

Xuanzang was quick to point out what he considered general ill behaviours of the peoples in the lands he visited. He was a rather harsh critic of the many cultures he visited. On the other hand, when he was impressed he made his positive sentiments quite clear.

Naturally things would have changed between the seventh century and now. However, to be sure, you can still see Buddhist and Hindu temples close to each other. As it was explained to me in Nepal the common people do not strongly distinguish between Hindusm and Buddhism. Nepal also raises plenty of yaks from which milk can be procured.

The jīvajīvaka bird is apparently a two-headed bird said to reside on snowy mountains. Who knows if Xuanzang actually saw such a bird. He recorded a lot of hearsay and local legends in his journal.

If you're interested in Xuanzang's journey, please check out this extensive map on Google Maps detailing the places he visited during his long trip:

Xuanzang Pilgrimage Route

Nuns and Buddhism's Decline?

2011-06-16T03:18:00.010+09:00

As of late I have been reading through Dr. Jan Nattier's Once Upon a Future Time Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline, which is an excellent study surveying the multiple timetables found in Buddhist traditions for the decline of the dharma as well as the theories, stories and textual histories behind them.

One thing that really surprised me to learn was that the teaching given by the Buddha on how the dharma will only last five-hundred years, as opposed to one-thousand years, if women should be admitted into the community of renunciates is not found in all Nikāya canons. This means that not every early Buddhist school in India possessed this teaching in their collection of scriptures. The Pāli canon, utilized by the only extant Nikāya tradition today Theravāda, records the teaching as follows:

"But, Ānanda, if women had not obtained the Going-forth from the home life into homelessness in the doctrine and discipline made known by the Tathāgata, the holy life would have lasted long, the true Dhamma would have lasted 1,000 years. But now that they have gotten to go forth... this holy life will not last long, the true Dhamma will last only 500 years. Just as a clan in which there are many women and few men is easily plundered by robbers and thieves, in the same way, in whatever doctrine and discipline women get to go forth, the holy life does not last long... Just as a man might make an embankment in advance around a great reservoir to keep the waters from overflowing, in the same way I have set forth in advance the eight rules of respect for bhikkhunīs that they are not to transgress as long as they live." — Cullavagga X.1

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/bmc2.ch23.html

This teaching is found in the canons of the Sarvāstivādin, Mahīśāsaka, Dharmaguptaka, Theravādin and Haimavātas schools, all of which belong to the Sthaviravāda branch of early Buddhism. However it is not found in the known canon of any school belonging to the Mahāsāṃghika branch. This is significant because it may, as Jan Nattier points out, indicate that the story was added after the schism of the sangha which occurred at the “second second Buddhist council” in 340 BCE at Pāṭaliputra.¹ In other words, the idea of blaming nuns for the premature demise of the dharma was possibly introduced after the emergence of sectarian division within the sangha community. The Mahāsāṃghika Nikāya tradition did not have such a teaching as far as we know.

It is also interesting to note that in the Mahāsāṃghika's Śariputraparipṛcchā, which is the earliest extant account of the schism between the Mahāsāṃghika and Sthaviravāda, we hear of a council being convened at Pāṭaliputra over issues regarding the vinaya. The Mahāsāṃghika rejected proposals by the Sthaviravāda proponents to add rules to the vinaya (monastic regulations) and hence a schism occurred. It makes one wonder if this teaching concerning the introduction of nuns and the premature demise of the dharma was not a product of the Sthaviravādins who sought to introduce further rules.

So did the Buddha really teach that the dharma would decline prematurely due to the introduction of bhikṣuṇī (nuns) into the community? According to the Theravāda school this indeed is a canonical teaching and is accepted as such. However, as pointed out above questions arise when we consider why this teaching is absent from any extant Mahāsāṃghika canon we have available to us.

This is indeed an important issue that will need to be further discussed. In our modern day women are encouraged to sit with men on equal footing and rightfully demand their equality. The teaching cited above has and inevitably will prove to be problematic when discussions of women and Buddhism are brought up. It is also a point that can easily be attacked by critics of Buddhism. Whether or not one wants to accept this teaching, we can, at the very least, say it was and is a canonical teaching for only some Buddhists, but not necessarily all. The Pāli canon was not the only record of the Buddha Śākyamuni's teachings. Our present understanding of early Buddhism has generally been dictated by studies of the Pāli canon, but slowly scholars are looking at multiple branches to get a clearer look at the history of Buddhist thought. For a good overview of this take a look at the following article by Linda Heuman: Whose Buddhism is Truest?

1See Nattier, Jan, Once Upon a Future Time Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline (Asian Humanities Press, 1991), 32.

Meat Eating Part I

2011-06-08T20:06:00.018+09:00

I recently heard about Australia banning exports of live cattle to Indonesia over concerns that Indonesian meat producers were being unusually cruel to the animals in the slaughterhouse. Al-Jazeera has a brief report here:

After watching this it occurred to me that if some brave soul out there had not taped these abuses and submitted it to the media, the common consumer would be completely unaware this is happening. The People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is often seen in a negative light by common consumers for their aggressive tactics in promoting veganism. Whether you appreciate their methods or not, they still bring to light a lot of undocumented cases of animal cruelty and present it uncensored to the world. I personally appreciate what they do. They are primarily concerned with animal welfare and make many efforts to confront cruelty.

The reality of meat consumption in our modern day is that meat is produced in an industrialized fashion. Industrialized meat production in a capitalist system seeks to maximize profits and minimizes expenses, so the welfare of animals is not a concern in such a model. If it was not for the efforts of animal welfare advocates the situation would be even worse than it presently is. This is why I commend the efforts of those who film these atrocities and bring them to light.

One might wonder where vegetarianism fits in with Buddhism? There is no answer that all Buddhist traditions would find suitable.

The Śrāvakayāna school of Theravada, which takes the Pāli Nikāya as its canon, asserts that the Buddha ate meat and did not forbid the consumption of it. Venerable Dhammika addresses this question in his work Good Question Good Answer:

QUESTION: Buddhists should be vegetarians, shouldn't they?
ANSWER:
Not necessarily. The Buddha was not a vegetarian, he did not teach his disciples to be vegetarian and even today there many good Buddhists who are not vegetarians. In the Buddhist scriptures it says;

‘Being rough, pitiless, back-biting, harming one’s friends, being heartless, arrogant and greedy –this makes one impure, not the eating of meat.

Being of immoral conduct, refusing to repay debts,

cheating in business, causing divisions amongst people - this makes one impure, not the eating of meat.’ Sn.246-7

However, in the Mahāyāna canon we find scriptures where the Buddha forbids the consumption of meat. One such scripture is the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra where the whole sixteenth chapter is dedicated to explaining why the Bodhisattva aspirant should not eat meat. Consider the following quote:

《入楞伽經》卷8〈16 遮食肉品〉：「佛告大慧：「夫食肉者有無量過，諸菩薩摩訶薩修大慈悲不得食肉，食與不食功德罪過我說少分，汝今諦聽。大慧！我觀眾生從無始來食肉習故，貪著肉味更相殺害，遠離賢聖受生死苦；捨肉味者聞正法味，於菩薩地如實修行速得阿耨多羅三藐三菩提，復令眾生入於聲聞辟支佛地止息之處，息已令入如來之地。大慧！如是等利慈心為本，食肉之人斷大慈種，云何當得如是大利？是故，大慧！我觀眾生輪迴六道，同在生死共相生育，迭為父母兄弟姊妹，若男若女中表內外六親眷屬，或生餘道善道惡道常為眷屬，以是因緣我觀眾生更相噉肉無非親者，由貪肉味迭互相噉，常生害心增長苦業流轉生死不得出離。」」(CBETA, T16, no. 671, p. 561, b8-23)

The Buddha told Mahāmati, "Meat eating has countless offences. Bodhisattva-mahāsattvas practise great compassion and cannot eat meat. I will speak of eating [meat], not eating [meat], the merits and the offences. You now must listen well.

Mahāmati! I see that because of the habits of sentient beings from the beginningless past to eat meat that they crave the flavour of meat and mutually kill and harm one another. They are far departed from the wise and holy, and experience the suffering of saṃsāra. Those who reject the flavour of meat hear of the flavour of the true true dharma and properly practise through the grounds of the Bodhisattva to quickly attain unexcelled perfect enlightenment [anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi]. One also makes sentient beings enter the grounds of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha - a place of rest, whereupon resting they enter the ground of the Tathāgata.

Mahāmati! These benefits have at their foundation the mind of compassion. The person who eats meat severs the seed of grat compassion. How does one attain these great benefits? It is thus, Mahāmati, that I see sentient beings being born in the six paths through cyclic existence. Together within saṃsāra they give birth and nurture each other, alternating as father, mother, elder brother, younger brother, elder sister and younger sister. They may be male or they may be female and born as kinsmen, or they may be born in other paths including good paths and evil paths. They are frequently relatives. With these relations I see that the meat mutually consumed by sentient beings are all of one's relatives. It is due to craving meat that they alternate in consuming one another. They constantly give rise to a mind of harm, increasing the karma of their suffering and being unable to escape from the stream of life and death."

The entirely of this chapter in English is available here.

Similar thoughts are echoed in another scripture prominent in East Asia the Brahma Net Sūtra where it is explained that the Bodhisattva does not consume meat as a precept.

《梵網經》卷2：「若佛子。故食肉一切肉不得食。斷大慈悲性種子。一切眾生見而捨去。是故一切菩薩不得食一切眾生肉。食肉得無量罪。若故食者。犯輕垢罪。」(CBETA, T24, no. 1484, p. 1005, b10-13)

"If one be a son of the Buddha (buddha-putra), one must not intentionally eat any meat as it severs the innate seed of great compassion. Sentient beings will see [a meat eater] and flee. It is for this reason that all Bodhisattvas must not eat the meat of any sentient being. There are immeasurable transgressions when one eats meat. If one intentionally eats [meat], one violates a minor defiling transgression."

The two aforementioned scriptures were especially prevalent and well-read in East Asia. This includes both Chan and Japanese Zen. Unfortunately, nowadays the latter pays lip service to vegetarianism. Monasteries are supposed to be vegetarian in principle, but in truth they are not. One source told me that at Eihei-ji, the head temple of Soto Zen in Japan, people will smuggle in McDonalds to their friends inside the monastery and bribe the doormen in the back with some of the food.

While modern day Japan, including Japanese Buddhism, has largely abandoned their vegetarian culture which was was widespread until at least the late 19th century, vegetarianism is still widely a common lifestyle in Taiwan where orthodox traditions of Buddhism thrive. Taiwanese Buddhists are quite adept at cooking without meat and anywhere on the island you can find a vegetarian restaurant. Korean Buddhist monastics likewise are vegetarian, though meat consumption in the country is rapidly rising due to economic development and the infiltration of western consumer culture. Buddhist monastic communities in China and elsewhere like in Singapore and Malaysia still maintain vegetarianism.

It is worth noting that Tsem Tulku Rinpoche in Malaysia, a monk from the Tibetan Gelug-pa tradition, actively advocates vegetarianism through his organization Kechara House. Take a look at his blog entry here for example.

In Tibetan history there is one famous yogi named Shabkar Tsodruk Rangdrol (1781-1851) who advocated abstaining from meat consumption. We have the good fortunate to have access to his writings in translation. See here. His verses are quite graphic:

All of you who eat this baneful food,
The flesh and blood of beings once your parents,
Will take rebirth in Screaming and the other burning hells,
There to bake and boil.

Tibetan Buddhism has recently shifted towards vegetarianism in a strong way in recent decades. One of the most notable figures to go vegetarian is the Karmapa XVII, H.H. Orgyen Trinle Dorje who decreed that no Kagyu-pa monastery will prepare meat in its kitchens and is quite firm on matters related to Kagyu-pa members consuming meat. For details see here. For a further list of major Tibetan teachers advocating vegetarianism look here.

I noticed in my travels throughout India and Nepal that Tibetan restaurants catered to both meat eaters and vegetarians. I think part of this has to do with catering to tourists, but I suspect a lot of modern Tibetans, perhaps in particular those in largely Hindu communities, are starting to lean towards vegetarianism for the reasons outlined by numerous teachers.

Setting aside scriptures, I think it goes without saying that abstaining from consuming meat is ethically sound both in terms of concerns for animal welfare and the environment. According to the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries report, to produce 1 kilogram of beef requires 11 kilograms of grain. Pork requires 7 kilograms. Chicken requires 4 kilograms. One can imagine that such quantities of grain could be better spent preventing hunger in the world rather than providing cheap hamburgers at fast food restaurants, but moreover such vast production of grain to produce meat means more fossil fuels being burned to fuel the industrial machine which is wrecking our global environment. From an environmentalist perspective it is best to not contribute to the dirty business of meat production.

Some years ago I used to eat meat and after being presented with some of the arguments above and seeing a number of videos released by PETA, I decided it was unacceptable to eat meat. For the sake of animals I made a vow never to eat meat ever again. I gave it up and have never regretted that decision. After a short while I found the smell of meat revolting. In a country like Japan where vegetarianism is seldom understood, it can be difficult, but compassion overrides any desire for social conformity. Some of my Japanese friends have said they would like to give up meat, but given that the culture here does not really allow for individuals to give up all meat and fish, they are unable. One risks being a social pariah, unemployed and socially handicapped should one seek such "special treatment". I get away with it because I am a foreigner and nobody expects anything from me.

I will continue this discussion of meat eating in a future entry. I would like to explore some of the historical commentary literature of the past which examined this issue as well as the permissibility of eggs and dairy.

No pain, no gain?

2011-05-23T20:50:00.007+09:00

I would like to consider another verse from the The Sūtra in Forty-Two Sections《四十二章經》. Please click here for the previous one and some background information on the text.

This verse deals with the reality of suffering and the required action to overcome it.

佛言：人為道亦苦，不為道亦苦。惟人自生至老，自老至病，自病至死，其苦無量。心惱積罪，生死不息，其苦難說。

The Buddha said, “Though for a person to practise the path is painful, it is also painful to not practise the path. However, the suffering of a person from birth to old age, from old age to sickness and from sickness to death is immeasurable. The mind is tormented and accumulates offences while birth and death do not cease – that suffering is difficult to describe.”

The situation explained by the Buddha is that we sentient beings are trapped in a cycle of continuous suffering which extends beyond just this life into future lives as well, otherwise known as saṃsāra. One's lamentation, grief, misery and woe are truly immeasurable when one life is taken into consideration, but all the more when rebirth is considered.

The Buddha points out that to practise the path which leads to liberation is indeed painful, but to not practise towards that aim is also painful. It is infinitely more painful to not practise.

One might hear someone say, "When I meditate I suffer." One response is to say, "If you do not meditate, you will suffer." The thing to point out though is that if one does meditation and does it properly then appropriate mental stamina is cultivated which enables one to successfully identify causes of mental anguish and to avoid them. Moreover, that mental stamina also gives one the necessary willpower and strength to actually search into one's mind and when harmful feelings or thoughts arise to stop them.

We should also recognize that when you first start meditation it can be quite hard, but give it enough time and it becomes blissful.

To practise the path encompasses activities such as self-discipline and learning. Self-discipline is living a moral life where one minimizes all harm done to others while maintaining restraint in the face of desire for physical pleasures and worldly gains. Learning is cultivating wisdom. Ignorance is liken to darkness and wisdom to light. The more reliable knowledge one accumulates, the brighter the light and the lesser the darkness.

Indeed, to practise the path is not easy, but there really is no alternative as the only other option is endless misery and woe. The pain we might experience for the sake of liberation is infinitely small when compared to all the misery we have already experienced in this and all past lives. The medicine might taste bitter initially, but it is necessary to cure the illness.

Don't trust your thoughts.

2011-05-16T19:00:00.008+09:00

The Sūtra in Forty-Two Sections《四十二章經》is an early Chinese Buddhist text said to have been translated during the Eastern Han dynasty 東漢 (25-220 CE) by Kāśyapamatanga 迦葉摩騰 and Dharmarakṣa 法蘭. It also said to be the earliest Buddhist text to be translated into Chinese. As the story goes, Emperor Ming had a dream of a golden man. Upon explaining this to his advisers they suggested it was the Buddha he had dreamt of. A delegation was dispatched to India to fetch Buddhist teachings .

The Book of the Later Han 《後漢書》records the incident as follows:

世傳明帝夢見金人，長大，頂有光明，以問群臣。或曰：“西方有神，名曰佛，其形長丈六尺而黃金色。”帝於是遣使天竺問佛道法，遂於中國圖畫形像焉。楚王英始信其術，中國因此頗有奉其道者。...

It has been passed down through the generations that Emperor Ming had seen a golden man in a dream who was big and tall with a halo atop his head. He asked his ministers about this. One suggested, "In the west there is a spirit named Buddha. His figure is one zhang and six chi tall and his colour is golden yellow." The Emperor in response to this dispatched a delegation to India to ask of the Buddha's way and methods and they succeeded in bringing images and sculptures back to China. Chuwang Ying started to have conviction in the methods [of Buddhism]. It is because of this that China has many who believe in the ways [of the Buddha]. ...

I imagine the minister was referring to an image of the Buddha not unlike this one from Gandhāra:

The text itself reads like the Dhammapada in that it is a compilation of quotes from the Buddha. It serves as a good overall introduction to Buddhism.

The following quote is worth considering:

佛告沙門：慎無信汝意，意終不可信。慎無與色會，與色會即禍生。得阿羅漢道，乃可信汝意耳。

The Buddha told the monks, “Be careful not to trust your thoughts as those thoughts ultimately cannot be trusted. Be careful not to meet with physical desires, as meeting with physical desires will see misfortune born. It is only when you attain the path of the Arhat that you can trust your thoughts.”

This is contrary to the present day platitudes which encourage people to believe in themselves. It is suggested here that unless you are enlightened, you simply should not trust yourself. Deference should be made to Arhats and the Buddha. I do not think this means one should suspend one's critical thinking faculties, but rather that one should not have too much confidence in unenlightened faculties.

There are similar ideas expressed in the Pubbakotthaka Sutta: Eastern Gatehouse . See the following:

"Excellent, Sariputta. Excellent. Those who have not known, seen, penetrated, realized, or attained it by means of discernment would have to take it on conviction in others that the faculty of conviction... persistence... mindfulness... concentration... discernment, when developed & pursued, gains a footing in the Deathless, has the Deathless as its goal & consummation; whereas those who have known, seen, penetrated, realized, & attained it by means of discernment would have no doubt or uncertainty that the faculty of conviction... persistence... mindfulness... concentration... discernment, when developed & pursued, gains a footing in the Deathless, has the Deathless as its goal & consummation."

Again, the point is that until one has realization one does not have the faculties necessary for accurate discernment. For this reason there is nothing wrong with deferring to the testimony of a valid authority such as the Buddha or an attained practitioner.

The City of Ten-Thousand Buddhas has a translation of the Sūtra in Forty-Two Sections available online here.

No practice and no action.

2011-05-13T01:24:00.001+09:00

Sikong Benjing 司空本浄 (667-761), the Sixth Patriarch Huineng's dharma heir, is quoted as follows in the Record of the Transmission of the Lamp 《景德傳燈錄》.

「師乃說無修無作偈曰。

　見道方修道　　不見復何修

　道性如虛空　　虛空何所修

　遍觀修道者　　撥火覓浮漚

　但看弄傀儡　　線斷一時休」¹

The Master then explained the verse of no practice and no action. “Seeing the path and then practising the path: if you don't see it, again how do you practice it? The nature of the path is like empty space: in empty space what is practised? Fully watch the one who practices the path: they stir the fire seeking floating bubbles. Just watch the manipulation of the puppet: the strings cut and simultaneously it stops.”

1Fukushū Tōzen-ji Ban Keitoku Dentō Roku福州東禪寺版景德傳燈錄, (Kyoto: Zen Bunka Kenkyūjo, 1990).

Impermanence

2011-05-04T11:22:00.009+09:00

I recently spent some time volunteering in Rikuzentakata which is in Iwate Prefecture, Japan. On March 11th of this year a massive tsunami, a result of a 9.0 earthquake out at sea, tore through the city leaving heaps of debris and at least 1211 people dead. As of April 9th there were still 1183 people missing.

Needless to say, it was shocking at first to bear witness to such destruction. Everyone has seen photographs and videos of disaster zones before, but seeing it in real life is something else. Moreover, sorting through and cleaning up debris brings the disaster to a more personal level as one finds photographs, toys, homework assignments, clothes and other personal items scattered inside massive skeletons of metal wrapped in transparent plastic which were once productive greenhouses. You really do find everything and anything inside the debris. The tsunami picks up building materials, fishing nets, cars, cannisters and soccer balls, and then sends it deep inland several kilometres. The result is a tangled mess of immeasurable fragments of things which once belonged to ordinary people.

In Buddhism one often hears of impermanence. Impermanence being that all things and phenomena are fleeting, temporary, ephemeral, evanescent and transient. While it is quite simple to understand this, the problem is that we fail to realise our tendencies to cling to impermanent phenomena which results in suffering. This goes beyond concrete physical things. We even reify abstract concepts such as relationships and personal identity into objects which we cling to. The result is mental friction when the inevitable decay or change becomes apparent. Things change or go away and we suffer. It follows that we should cease clinging, but this is easier said than done.

I was cleaning up rubble outside this one home that had been destroyed and thought what a beautiful garden must have been here prior to the tsunami. You could tell that there were various stone sculptures, bonsai trees, a pond and a tidy plot of vegetables. It is sad to think how in less than a minute all those years of work put into the garden were erased. To add salt to a wound, the soil probably cannot grow much anymore due to the contamination from salt water. An honest and decent lifestyle and hobby brutally crushed by nature. Life is seldom ever fair even to good people. Samsara is not fair and does not play by the rules.

Ultimately, there is nothing to rely upon or trust in the samsaric world. There is no happiness in samsara. All things are impermanent. Old age, sickness, dying and death are suffering. Clinging to that which is impermanent is suffering. Not obtaining that which is sought is suffering. When we feel we have attained happiness it is but the suffering of change - the failure of worldly happiness to last.

The experience left me feeling a few things. The first was that of sorrow for those who died and those who mourn them. I looked over the vast expanse of ruin and said a few prayers. When the tsunami struck in March I was in Kathmandu, Nepal. I had made offerings at Boudhanath Stūpa on behalf of the victims. In Rikuzentakata I was able to lend what little practical aid I could and with my own hands carry out my aspirations to be of benefit to the victims.

The other thing I felt was how fragile life and worldly pursuits are. This is not original thinking, but just an echo of what the Buddha and countless other sages have said before. There is no certainty in this sea of suffering. Relationships, money, home ownership, hobbies and any other worldly pursuit can be obliterated in a few moments. It all comes to nothing in the end. To seek liberation through appropriate means is really the only worthwhile pursuit in life. What springs forth from genuine spiritual cultivation, virtue and wisdom carries one away from the tsunami of misery which is the samsaric world onto the solid ground of enlightenment.

Buddhism and Transcendental Visions

2011-04-23T19:40:00.007+09:00

In my discussions with Buddhists I often find that many think a transcendental vision of the Buddha is entirely a product of later Mahāyāna thinking. This is probably due to the fact that the only extant Śrāvaka school is Theravāda and their conception of Śākyamuni is not transcendental. However, we need to keep in mind the definition of "Buddha" differs from school to school in the greater historical context. Even amongst the early Śrāvaka schools there was no universal consensus on the qualities of the Buddha.

One good work which outlines this is The Concept of the Buddha by Venerable Guang Xing.

Consider the following:

The concept of the Buddha was significantly advanced at the time of the early Indian Buddhist schools, especially the Sarvāstivāda and the Mahāsāṃghika. The Sarvāstivādins were more empirical in their approach. They summarized and synthesized the attributes and qualities of the Buddha as described in the early sutras before formulating, for the first time, the two-body theory: that of the rupakāya and the dharmakāya. The rupakāya, according to the Sarvāstivādins, although impure, is endowed with the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks as well as a one-fathom halo. The dharmakāya is endowed with the eighteen exclusive attributes: the ten powers, the four kinds of intrepidity, the three foundations of mindfulness and great compassion. None of the constituents of either the rupakāya or the dharmakāya are innovative; rather, they consist of the qualities of the Buddha which were already present in early Buddhism. Some of them, such as the ten powers and the thirty-two major marks were simply taken from the Nikāyas and the Āgamas with further explanations. Other qualities, for instance the eighty minor marks and the one-fathom halo, were taken after careful synthesis. (p75)

Venerable Guang Xing also elaborates the Mahāsāṃghikas' concept of the Buddha:

The Mahāsāṃghikas’ religious philosophy was based more on faith than on reason, and accepted whatever was said by the Buddha or, more precisely, whatever was taught in the Nikāyas and the Āgamas. As a result, they developed the concept of a transcendental (lokottara) Buddha based on the superhuman qualities of the Buddha, as discussed in Chapter 1 above. Two aspects of the Mahāsāṃghikas’ concept of the Buddha can be identified: the true Buddha who is omniscient and omnipotent, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings with skilful means. Shakyamuni was considered but one of these forms. The true Buddha supports the manifested forms that can appear in the worlds of the ten directions. In Mahayana Buddhism, the former aspect – the true Buddha – was developed and divided into the concept of the dharmakāya and the concept of the sambhogakāya; the latter aspect – the manifested forms – was developed into the concept of nirmaṇakāya. Thus, the Mahāsāṃghikas are the originators of the idea of the nirmaṇakāya, and the manifested forms can have many embodiments. Furthermore, they also introduced the theory of numerous Buddhas existing in other worlds. (p53)

Even from a Śrāvaka position the Mahāsāṃghika approach is still based entirely on Āgama literature. They also did not accept Abhidharma as canonical. However, their vision and interpretation of the Buddha was quite different from that of Sthaviravāda / Theravāda.

Now in such a transcendental interpretation of the Buddha (lokottara) it follows that since the true Buddha manifests forms through which he liberates sentient beings with skilful means one could continue to be taught by the Buddha though Śākyamuni had long since passed away from the physical world.

Those seeking the same transcendent state could have been taught the Mahāyāna by the Buddha in pure visions. The Mahāyāna, though not taught by Śākyamuni on Earth, was still a teaching by the Buddha nevertheless. A lot of Mahāyāna scriptures are obviously not meant to be understood as having been taught by Śākyamuni in the ordinary physical world. Basically, Śākyamuni, who was later identified as a nirāmaṇakāya, did not teach the Mahāyāna, but that is not problematic at all. The Mahāyāna was likely first taught in visions to those few individuals capable of grasping its import. The Mahāyāna proponent could even suggest that the omniscient Śākyamuni was fully aware that the Mahāyāna would eventually emerge over time and that this was even planned.

Even by the Mahāsāṃghika approach this is plausible. They would not have accepted such visions as canonical, but those few individuals having them would presumably have taken them quite seriously and perhaps taught them to others.

Although the Mahāsāṃghika saw Buddha as representing something transcendental, they still sought Arhatship and not Buddhahood. However, in time some would have asked if it is possible to achieve the same transcendental state that they saw as the true Buddha. In other words, some individuals would have asked questions concerning the origins of their teacher and then took it one step further and pondered whether or not it was possible for anyone to recreate the same path to Buddhahood. They were motivated by compassion and concern for sentient beings. The true Buddha as they conceived it presumably could have revealed to them in visions the means and methods necessary to achieve something beyond Arhatship. The result perhaps were the first Mahāyāna sūtras.

Within the history of Buddhism there are numerous cases of individuals having visions of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas while receiving extensive teachings from such transcendental beings. One famous example of this is the Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra-kārikā which was penned by the physical Asanga, but is said to have been composed by Maitreya, the future Buddha, in Tuṣita Heaven. Some scholars have suggested Maitreya was Asanga's teacher, but tradition holds that it really was Maitreya in Tuṣita who composed and transmitted the text to our world via the medium of the flesh and blood Asanga.

In the larger Buddhist world of today this sort of phenomenon still occurs. It is not uncommon in Asia to hear of practitioners who have had visions and received useful teachings as a result. I know one bhikṣuni (a Buddhist nun) who once showed me some exquisite Chinese poetry of Buddhist content which she says was transmitted to her from Bodhisattvas. While my knowledge of Chinese poetry is far from extensive, I could at least say it was well-written. She showed me page after page of poems which she explained was not written by her, but by Bodhisattvas who borrowed her hand. In India a few months ago I heard of similar cases. In one case I heard of a monk who had a vision of Kāśyapa Buddha which drove him to visit holy sites in India.

Setting aside whether or not a person really believes that such transcendental beings exist, it is nevertheless true that didactic visions are not at all uncommon within spiritual communities both past and present. However, in the Buddhist context I suspect Theravāda might not appreciate such visions as much as Mahāyāna traditions do.

Pilgrim's Tale VI

2011-04-17T09:40:00.028+09:00

The is the last part in my account of my pilgrimage. Part V please click here.

From Shanghai I flew to Kansai International Airport in Osaka. I settled into a cosy hostel called UK Osaka. It is a small hostel, but the atmosphere made it feel like I was staying at a friend's apartment. I have stayed at many backpacker hostels before, but this was actually one of the best.

The next day I headed to Nara, which is less than an hour away from Osaka by train. I hadn't been back to Nara in about six years. Fortunately I arrived at the perfect time of the year when sakura or cherry blossoms were in full bloom.

Nara is famous for having been the capital of Japan between 710 - 784 CE. It is famous for having many old sites, both shrines and temples, as well herds of tame deer which wander the parks freely. Traditionally the deer were considered to be messengers of the gods. The locals sell shika senbei 鹿煎餅 which are baked crackers that are fed to the deer.

Kōfuku-ji 興福寺 is one of several notable temples in the city. It was originally built in 669 CE, but was relocated to Nara in 710 CE. When I visited a number of major buildings were undergoing extensive reconstruction. It will take several years for them to be completely refurbished and available to the public again. However, the iconic Tōkondo 東金堂 (East Golden Hall), which is a national treasure of Japan, and Five-Story Pagoda are still available for viewing.

Inside the hall are a number of aged statues and sculptures. The Nikkō-Bosatsu 日光菩薩 / Sūryaprabha (on the left with gold backing) dates from the 7th century CE. The other statues have various dates up to the 16th century.

The Nan'endō 南円堂 (South Octagonal Hall) is a site in the Kansai Kannon Pilgrimage (西国三十三所) where pilgrims visit a number of temples and shrine dedicated to the Bodhisattva Kannon 觀音菩薩, otherwise known as Avalokiteśvara, Guanyin or Chenrezig.

Another temple of note in Nara is Gangō-ji 元興寺 which was founded in the late 6th century and originally called Asuka-dera 飛鳥寺. It is said to be the first Buddhist temple to be constructed in Japan. The original temple was built in a different location during the Asuka period (538 to 710 CE) and in 718 it was relocated to Nara. Unfortunately, none of the original architecture remains, though the main hall dates back to the 13th century. Interestingly, the original temple was crafted by craftsmen and artists from the kingdom of Paekche on the Korean peninsula. They accompanied a group of monks who brought Buddha relics and were received by the court. Early Buddhism in Japan did not actually come from China. In reality it came from Korea.

The temple also has a small museum on site housing a number of artefacts. I found this statue of Acala rather impressive:

The almost symbolic Tōdai-ji 東大寺 was founded in the early 8th century. It served as a kind of university and center for Buddhist studies throughout the centuries.

The central figure inside the temple is Vairocana Buddha 毘盧遮那佛.

Earlier I wrote an entry about all the statues inside the temple, so if you're interested please click here.

After visiting Nara for the day I retired back to the hostel in Osaka. The next morning I made my way to Kōyasan for the first time in this life. It takes about two hours by train and cablecar. The train takes you to the foot of the mountain and from there you take a cablecar to get to the top.

The Kōyasan station is still some distance from the town itself. I decided to forego the bus and took the long route which was very rewarding given the near silent roadway, beautiful scenary or fresh mountain air.

On the west side of town you approach the Daimon 大門 or Great Gate.

From there you proceed into what looks like an otherwise normal mountain town.

After walking for a few minutes you arrive at the Danjō Garan 壇上伽藍 temple complex which was designed by Kūkai 空海, otherwise known as Kōbō-Daishi 弘法大師 (774–835), the founder of the Shingon sect of Buddhism in Japan. The central point of the complex is the Konpon Daitō 根本大塔 stūpa.

Inside a statue of Mahāvairocana 大毘盧遮那 / 大日如來 is enshrined. Mahāvairocana in Shingon Vajrayāna is a symbol for the dharmakāya.

Another pagoda at the site is the Saitō 西塔, which while originally built in 887 CE was reconstructed in 1834. Japan traditionally built with timber which unfortunately has meant that many buildings throughout Japanese history have been destroyed by fire and rebuilt again and again.

A short distance away is the head temple of the Koyasan Shingon sect. Kongōbuji 金剛峯寺 as it stands now was built in the 19th century.

The temple also has a rock garden:

Onwards to the far side of town I stopped in for lunch and enjoyed a bowl of udon with mountain vegetables.

Oku No In 奥之院, the mausoleum of Kūkai, is in a vast graveyard which is home to countless gravestones and memorials for such famous Japanese figures as Oda Nobunaga, Shinran and Hōnen among others both old and recent.

It is a rather calm and serene place shaded by tall trees. I was surprised to see that modern companies have their own private plots presumably arranged for their employees. The graveyard, though quite ancient, is still used and being expanded upon.

Finally after walking the long stretch of pathway I arrived at the mausoleum of Kūkai which is surrounded by a kind of moat. Out of respect visitors are asked to refrain from all photography once crossing the bridge.

It was here where Kūkai's bones and ashes are emtombed that I finished my two month pilgrimage. I had visited countless temples in Hong Kong, India, Nepal, China and Japan. I made an offering of three candles to the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, commiting myself to purifying body, speech and mind. I also paid my sincerest respects to Kūkai, the founder of Shingon.

It was a long trip of over sixty days and worth it. I have absolutely no regrets about the trip. In fact, I would say it was the greatest and most beneficial thing I have ever done in my life so far. I learned a great deal about myself, life, Buddhism, other cultures and history all the while meeting both old and new friends along the way. It was the generous people along the way that I owe the greatest gratitude toward. I made many new friends and had the good fortune to meet several old friends.

It was truly a positive and rewarding experience. The merit and good fortune I must have to be able to make such a journey was only possible because of the blessings of my teachers both past and present. To them I owe immeasurable gratitude.

Buddhaṃ śaraṇaṃ gacchāmi.
Dharmaṃ śaraṇaṃ gacchāmi.
Saṃghaṃ śaraṇaṃ gacchāmi.

For Part I click here.

Pilgrim's Tale V

2011-04-15T13:00:00.042+09:00

This is a continuation of my account of my pilgrimage. For Part IV please click here.

After staying in Nepal for a few weeks I departed for China. It was a short flight past the Himalayas to Hong Kong. The Himalayas are quite tall even when seen from the plane.

I spent a few days in Hong Kong again to get my visa to enter mainland China. I had coffee with Venerable Huifeng again, wandered around for awhile and then repacked my bag for Guangzhou. Guangzhou is only a few hours north of Hong Kong by train. It is a clean and well organized city with a rather long history of commerce and trade, but unfortunately few ancient things remain.

Fortunately I know a local named Jennifer who was happy to take me to a few of the notable temples in the city. The first was Guangxiao Temple 光孝寺. Chan Patriarch Huineng 慧能 is said to have trained here in the 7th century CE.

The main shrine houses an exquisite statue:

The grounds are tidy with plenty of greenery and curious items to inspect.

Inside the art gallery of the temple one finds this stone tablet which says, "May the Emperor live one-hundred million years!" This is clearly a relic from a time long ago in China.

I also found this jade incense cauldron quite nice.

In walking distance one can get to Liurong Temple 六榕寺, otherwise known as the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees. This temple was built in 537 CE. The defining feature of the temple is the Thousand Buddha Stupa 千佛塔.

After visiting these two temples Jennifer took me to her favourite vegetarian restaurant in Guangzhou. The flavour was certainly different from Taiwanese-style Buddhist vegetarian cuisine, but was tasty nonetheless.

The dish on the left is a kind of fake meat dish made from ground vegetable roots complete with strips of fake bacon. On the right is rice gruel with boiled vegetables. I think anyone unaccustomed to actual Chinese tastes might not find this so appetizing, but I found it quite delicious.

Just near the restaurant in the jade market district is another temple whose name I fail to remember. On the wall outside in big letters reads, "Be mindful of the Buddha, become the Buddha."

The temple also has a hall of Arhats which is a common feature in most Chinese temples. Some have a garden of Arhats, others a hall.

Guangzhou has a good museum called The Museum of the Nanyue King Mausoleum 西汉南越王博物馆. It houses the actual tomb of the Nanyue King Zhao Mo (reigned 137-122 BCE). The Nanyue Kingdom was in conflict with the Western Han dynasty and was destroyed by 111 BCE. Besides the actual tomb itself, the museum includes a collection of artefacts from various time periods. It also has a collection of earthenware pillows.

Traditionally in China people slept with firm headrests which are nevertheless still pillows.

There are also a number of Buddhist items from the Silk Road.

Visitors can enter the main tomb and then go into the main gallery to see the contents. Judging from the height of the ceiling I will suspect that the ancient Nanyue peoples were generally much shorter than me.

One characteristic item of royal Han Dynasty burials was the jade suit. In this time period it was fashionable to wrap dead royalty in a suit of jade. Incidentally, they also sacrificed concubines and servants before placing them in the tomb. The seals and remains of the king's concubines were also found inside.

After Guangzhou I boarded a train for Shanghai and eighteen hours later I was on the east coast of China.

The Shanghai museum has a number of absolutely beautiful classical pieces of art both Buddhist and other.

One temple of note in Shanghai is Jing'an-si 靜安寺 which dates back to 274 CE, but was relocated where it is now in 1216. However, much of the temple is entirely rebuilt and new. On the outer wall facing the street there are also shops selling bags and other merchandise.

I did not spend as much time in China as I would have liked. Fortunately I had several friends I could meet with who showed me around both Guangzhou and Shanghai. I really only got a taste of China. I think in the future I would like to travel around China extensively.

Pilgrim's Tale Part IV

2011-04-12T22:22:00.026+09:00

This is a continuation of my account of my pilgrimage. For Part III please click here.

I woke up early in the morning to catch the 7:00AM bus to Kathmandu. As I walked down the stretch of gravel highway from the guest house to the bus stop I could see the Himalayas to the north looking as if their peaks had been gilded by the morning sun. I arrived early and this was good because the bus actually left at 6:45AM instead of at 7:00AM! Nepal has no train system so people rely on the highways to get around. Buses are a commonly used form of transportation in the country. However, they only loosely follow schedules. They will also cram as many people as possible into a small bus, tie all the luggage to the roof and blast Hindi pop songs for the whole trip.

It was, needless to say, a long trip to Kathmandu. It was only supposed to take eight hours, but it ended up taking twelve hours for a few reasons.

The first was that the bus broke a wheel half-way to our destination and we needed to stop at a garage to have it repaired. The men in the bus stood around watching the repairs. I went to buy a plate of fried noodles from a highway merchant and enjoyed chatting with one of my fellow passengers who told me he works in Dubai at a hotel.

He told me all about how Nepalese often go abroad for work as suitable employment is scarce in their homeland. He also told me that he felt obligated to go overseas to make money for the simple fact that he is the eldest in his extended family and would want to support his younger cousins. I was quite humbled by such an attitude to life and work -- here is a man who is not even going to work to send money home to his mother or wife, but to his cousins and extended relatives. I told him that, unlike in much of the west, he will surely always be surrounded by loving family and as an old man will never know loneliness.

Travelling by bus through Nepal also was an opportunity to see much of the countryside. Nepal is a mostly mountainous country with some flatlands here and there.

The atmosphere of local roadside towns was quite different from Lumbini and Kathmandu which are well used to tourists. Nevertheless, I found the locals friendly and curious. The food was also tasty and fresh.

Arriving at Kathmandu's border you encounter a police checkpoint where they board the bus, pretend to inspect a thing or two and then leave. The inspector actually gave me a second glance probably because I was wearing an Indian style long-sleeve shirt and sported a long beard. I think I didn't look Nepalese, but then I also didn't look like a western tourist either. So he asked where I was from, smiled when I said Canada and then looked through my passport for a few seconds. The Nepalese on board the bus found this highly amusing.

The other reason for the delay was that there was a traffic jam in the single road leading into Kathmandu. One of the locals said a tree had fallen on top of a truck ahead and so the road was backed up a good distance. I was actually prepared to get out and walk, but it was late and not having ever been in the Kathmandu Valley I decided to just wait it out. Two and a half hours later we slowly made our way into central Kathmandu.

Kathmandu is a crowded city with very poor air quality and daily scheduled blackouts, but I found the people generally quite friendly and hospitable. My first few nights I stayed in the backpacker's quarter of Thamel, which is a tourist area filled with shops, pubs, restaurants and travel agents.

The typical dish in Nepal is actually not curry, but dal (lentils) and rice with a few pickles, fried vegetables and curd. In general the restaurant will fill up your dish until you are completely full leaving you quite satisfied.

When I was in the city I had also arrived at the start of Losar or Tibetan New Year. There is a large Tibetan community in the city and for their celebrations almost everyone was in Tibetan garb. There were also celebrations in the area of Boudha which is the main Tibetan area on the east side of the city.

The undeniable central point of the Boudha area is the ancient Boudhanath stūpa which as I understand dates back to at least the 5th century CE, though many legends surround it.

There is apparently a connection between Padmasambhava and the stūpa. There is reference to it in the text The Legend of the Great Stūpa of Boudhanath.

"Again King Trison Detsen spoke to the Lotus Born Guru, "Great Guru, in the kaliyuga, the age of decadence and corruption, when the Voice of Buddha is a mere echo, will this Great Stupa, this Wish Fulfilling Gem, be destroyed or damaged? Will it decay? And if it is neglected or damaged what will be the portent of its ruin? What vice will corrupt this area of the transitory world? When the signs and omens are seen, what must be done?"

Guru Rinpoche replied, "Listen, Great King. The real perfection of this Great Stupa is indestructible, inviolate and incorruptible: it is inseparable from the Body of Infinite Simplicity of all the Buddhas. But the phenomenal fabric of the Great Stupa is perishable, a transitory form in a changing world, and it can be damaged by the four elements. The damage will be repaired by the incarnations of the Lords of the Three Families - Manjusri, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani - and the Wrathful Bhrikutis and Tara Devi." ... (continued)

Click here for further details and translation.

The stūpa is surrounded by numerous shops, restaurants and cafes.

In the immediate vicinity there are several major monasteries and shedra (colleges).

It was in front of the stūpa that I just happened to encounter an internet acquaintance whom I had never met in real life yet had been chatting with for some years on internet forums and then Facebook. I turned the corner on the walkway leading to the stūpa and there he was. If I had turned that corner five seconds later I would not have encountered him. I knew he was in Kathmandu, but we had yet to be in contact and he didn't know I was even coming. It was just like in Bodhgaya where I just happened to run into an old Buddhist friend from back home in Canada. I think this was more than mere chance. We had Italian food with his two colleagues and for the next week he told me all about living in Nepal and his experiences with Tibetan Buddhism.

On the other side of the city there is Swayambhu Stūpa which is famous for the resident monkeys who seem to own the place.

The stūpa is atop a mountain and it takes a few minutes to climb the stairs to the top.

The stūpa is surrounded by numerous smaller temples and shrines.

One also can find an aged Buddha statue of exquisite design:

There are also numerous merchants selling an array of merchandise:

Down the hill on the other side there are also three statues worth seeing:

Overall I found my stay in Kathmandu quite enjoyable. The Buddhist sites were of particular appeal to me and being able to meet some local monks was a memorable experience. Kathmandu is a large bustling city, but still has many places worth seeing scattered throughout the valley. The Boudha area is also notably different from Thamel. The latter is for general backpackers and tourists looking to shop. Boudha, while a popular tourist attraction, generally seems to attract Buddhist pilgrims more than anything else. Even the sign on the door in my hotel room made this clear:

Pilgrim's Tale Part III

2011-04-10T02:03:00.026+09:00

This is a continuation of my account of my pilgrimage. For Part II please click here.

I took an early morning government bus back to Gorakhpur. It was a long ride across a rainy Indian highway that seemed half under construction. At one point the driver honked the horn and the noise didn't stop. No matter how much he struck the wheel and cursed the noise continued. He pulled over to the side of the road, opened up the hood and stood there clueless as to what to do with his cell phone to his ear asking what he should do. He actually didn't fix it and just got back in and continued driving. The sound of the horn slowly subsided after ten minutes. I imagine all the pedestrians were wondering why the bus was rolling down the highway with a constant horn blaring.

Upon arriving in Gorakhpur I was approached by a number of men looking to hire their cars to take me to the Nepalese border. In India this kind of thing is common – you'll suddenly find yourself with half a dozen cab drivers shouting at you and arguing amongst themselves in Hindi. One driver, who was young and quite clean looking, offered me a fair price equivalent to US$14 for a two hour drive to the Nepalese border. I was originally planning to take a government bus, but suddenly the idea of a private car ride sounded quite appealing. It was a nice drive up to the border. As one goes out towards the frontier of India towards Nepal the highways become cleaner.

Arriving at the border one is surprised to see there really is no official looking border crossing. The street just stretches into Nepal. The Indian customs office on your right is literally just a few old men sitting behind aged wooden desks stamping passports. Not even a single computer in the office. It seems quite optional whether or not you go inside to get your passport stamped. Likewise the Nepalese customs office seems like an optional visit. The border guards seem more like traffic police directing the chaotic congestion of people, automobiles and oxcarts through the narrow corridor.

To get a Nepalese tourist visa is quite straightforward, but the odd thing is that you need to pay in American dollars. Cash. There is no credit card option. They don't take Indian or Nepalese rupees either. The cash changers at the border are all too ready to provide American dollars for a price.

It took a half hour to get the visa as a whole busload of Burmese monks and pilgrims were having their visas processed ahead of me. While waiting I was approached by a young Nepalese man who offered a hired car to Lumbini for only US$10. Again, it seemed like a comfortable option and I did not even bother haggling.

Crossing into Nepal I was surprised by the relative cleanliness of the countryside and towns compared to India. I didn't see heaps of rubbish piled into ditches like in much of India.

In about an hour I arrived at my destination and spied a massive Tibetan monastery on the side of the road.

After a day of travelling I was finally in Lumbini. This is the place where Buddha was born. Today it is a protected ancient ruin surrounded by pristine parkland that also serves as fields for grazing animals. There is a fence surrounding the site and it is patrolled by the military.

After checking into a local guest house without any prior reservation I dropped off my backpack and entered the site. I will say that Lumbini is perhaps one of the most beautiful places I have ever visited in my life. The key location of the site is Maya Devi Temple which is nestled in the center of Lumbini Garden. Outside the garden is a man-made lake which encircles the garden like a moat. It is quiet, serene, clean and beautiful.

Maya Devi Temple marks the spot where the Buddha is said to have been born. Ancient ruins surround the site and countless prayer flags above provide shade to the many devotees who come to pay their respects.

I had the good fortune here to run into a monk of some great renown. As I was walking towards Maya Devi Temple I was greeted by a barefoot monk clad in a yellow robe. He asked me where I was from and invited me to join him and his group to pray for world peace. I was honoured by such an invitation and without hesitation folded my hands and agreed.

His name was Bhikku Buddha Dhatu. He has been called the beggar of the century. He travels around the world with nothing more than his robe, a begging bowl and meditation cushion. When I met him he was leading a group of pilgrims from Laos along with a few other monks. I was humbled in his presence and found him quite sociable yet modest in his temperament. The prayers were done in English, Laotian and Vietnamese. There happened to be a group of pilgrims from Vietnam at the temple who were delighted to hear his prayers in Vietnamese. Their humility and reverence in his presence was remarkable. It is also worth mentioning here that one of his devotees told me that whenever Bhikku spots a dead animal on the roadside he insists on stopping to provide a proper burial and prayers for it. It does not matter the schedule or location either.

Beside Maya Devi Temple is an original Ashoka pillar erected sometime in the 3rd century BCE. It is in good condition and the original Brāhmī engravings are still visible.

As Bhikku Buddha Dhatu's party went onward I stayed around the garden and had a private moment recollecting the significance of the site. This indeed was where the Sage of the Shakya clan was born. As the sun descended towards the horizon and the brilliance of the candle offerings grew with every moment I felt a deep sense of gratitude and reverence for the Buddha and his beautiful mother Māyādevī who brought him into the world. He was born a prince and died a homeless sage that changed the course of history in ways unimaginable.

Returning to the guest house for the night I had to stop several times to take in the scenery.

Outside the main gate I was greeted by a young man in a wheelchair. I said hello and he invited me to join him. His name was Rahul and he explained to me that he was suffering from polio. The same age as me, but looking much older. He really had no need to ask for money as most people freely offered because of his clearly visible condition. He had a travel guide for Nepal and explained to me some places worth visiting.

Beyond the ancient ruins and Maya Devi Temple there are a number of recently built temples and monasteries. Just like in Bodhgaya one finds Buddhist temples from a myriad of nations. The west side is for Mahāyāna temples and the east side for Theravāda. There is a lot of vast empty land and forested area dividing the ruins from the recently built monasteries. I found a cosy spot and sat down to meditate in the afternoon amongst grazing goats.

I first walked through the Mahāyāna quarter and found a Korean temple next door to a Tibetan temple which is across the street from a Chinese monastery.

Down the way a bit is Great Lotus Temple which is a newly built Tibetan stūpa and monastery. It seems to have been built for world peace.

The stūpa contains a number of tantric statues and countless texts. The colourful wall and ceiling murals demand a good amount of time to adequately appreciate.

The east side of the park is where the Royal Thai Monastery is to be found. Incidentally, at all major Buddhist sites one will find a monastery built by and maintained by the Thai royal family.

A few minutes walk away one finds a Burmese stūpa.

One of the locals cooked me lunch and sat down with me to tell me how Lumbini is undergoing a lot of rapid development. There is significant investment being poured into the area to build good facilities for pilgrims and tourists alike. From the sounds of things ten years ago much of what I saw there did not exist. There are a number of hotels on the outskirts being built and cobblestone roads within the park are being laid down. Lumbini is destined to become a major destination for pilgrims and general sightseers. I think this will add to the atmosphere rather than take away from it.

Pilgrim's Tale Part II

2011-04-07T21:51:00.026+09:00

This is a continuation of my account of my pilgrimage. For Part I please click here.

I departed Bodhgaya in the early afternoon and took a government bus to Patna, the capital of Bihar State. For various reasons the bus ride took considerably longer than anticipated and we arrived in the evening rather than afternoon. However, fortunately I was able to sit beside a young Indian man who was working as a guide for two English pilgrims who belong to the Triratna Buddhist Community which was founded by Sangharakshita. We had a long discussion on the bus about the state of Buddhism in India which I found quite educational and insightful. The bus also had a number of Tibetan monks on board who were in good humour and making the most of the trip by joking around. It was a long ride, but quite enjoyable.

I did not spend a lot of time in Patna and proceeded to the city of Varanasi. The city is famous as being a holy city for Hindus. The city is located on the Ganges River and beyond serving as a place where pilgrims bath it also provides designated areas along the river where bodies are cremated and then deposited into the river.

The city is also home to whole herds of cattle who roam around living on generous handouts.

One interesting thing worth noting here is that in India many people will collect cow dung, dry it into little discs and use it for fuel for cooking and heat. It does not stink when dried and interestingly when burned also keeps the mosquitoes away. Traditionally many homes were and still are made with cow dung smeared on the floor and across the walls.

The areas alongside the river are medieval and the narrow corridors and alleyways mean that besides motorcycles there is just pedestrian traffic. It is truly a maze of corridors, steps and buildings. It is also home to various monkeys who can and do terrorize both locals and tourists alike.

I was able to meet many backpackers and travellers around Varanasi. It is a popular destination for western youth travelling around India. Unfortunately there are a lot of drug users who enjoy visiting and the local drug dealers are happy to approach any westerner to offer them narcotics of all varieties. This is perhaps the one downside to visiting Varanasi.

While in Varanasi I also met a number of locals who were happy to sit with me on the street side and tell me all about the lifestyle and cost of living in the city. I found such discussions quite useful in understanding Varanasi from the Indian perspective. One shopkeep, a Hindu, told me he felt he was quite blessed to have been born in Varanasi and then commented that I as well must have done some good deed which allowed me the good fortune to step foot in the city. He also remarked on how generosity towards people and stray dogs is the utmost of virtues to be practised. He said he often goes out in the mornings to feed the many stray dogs in the city.

I very much enjoyed my stay in the city. I would also recommend anyone visiting there to hire a boatman and go for a ride on the Ganges River.

After spending three nights in Varanasi I proceeded onward to Sarnath, the site where the Buddha first started teaching the Dharma and the existence of the sangha came to be. Sarnath is only a half-hour rickshaw ride away from Varanasi. I had no reservation ahead of time, but found out that the local Gelug-pa Temple provided inexpensive lodging for pilgrims and took a room there.

Interestingly, the sign out front warns the Shugden practitioners and anyone associated with them are unwelcome in the temple.

The town has a number of sites and temples. The city is particularly famous for the Dhamek Stupa which is 128 feet high and 93 feet in diameter and was built in around 500 CE to replace an earlier structure erected by the Buddhist King Aśoka (died 232 BCE).

Down the street there is the Chaukhandi Stupa which commemorates the place where Buddha met his first disciples. The structure on top of it was built to commemorate the Mughal Emperor Humayun's visit to the site.

There is also a temple nearby built by Anagarika Dharmapala called Mulagandhakuti Vihara which is parallel to Deer Park and provides recitation of sutta every evening which is broadcast over speakers around the area.

The interior of the temple is decorated with various wall murals depicting the life of the Buddha.

While the town is home to various monasteries of various nations, by far the most impressive is the Kagyu-pa's Karmapa Temple. It is an impressive monastery decorated inside and out with exquisite art. When I was there I was able to sit in on a puja which was being conducted for Tibetan New Year.

Sarnath also is home to the Sarnath Tibetan University, which provides traditional Tibetan education to the Tibetan community of India.

After spending a few nights in Sarnath I made my way to Gorakhpur by train and then transferred to a government bus to get to Kushinagar, the site where Buddha passed away and was cremated. The town itself is somewhat small, having only a population of around 18,000 residents. This makes it quite easily walkable. The city is built along an L-shaped road and one has only to follow it to get to all the sites in the town. Naturally the cycle rickshaw drivers will be happy to offer their services to any pedestrian.

Again I was able to secure lodging at the Gelug-pa temple in town. The resident monk was all too happy to provide the room to me. They also provide the rooms by donation without a fixed price. It was a simple and spartan room, but it was cosy and warm.

Next door to the temple is Parinirvana Stupa and Parinirvana Temple, which mark the spot where the Buddha passed away.

The statue inside of the temple is about 1500 years old.

Unfortunately the back of the stupa, like other ancient ruins in India, has been vandalized with graffiti.

In the surrounding area one also finds many ruins of ancient Buddhist temples and monasteries.

On the far side of town is the Makutabandhana Stupa which marks the site where the Buddha's physical remains were cremated.

Kushinagar was well worth the visit. The locals are friendly and helpful. The town does not have the status or number of visitors that Bodhgaya does, but in the future this will change when the Maitreya Project comes to fruition. They intend to build a 152 metre tall statue of Maitreya, the future Buddha, at Kushinagar.

...to be continued in Part III.

Pilgrim's Tale Part I

2011-04-05T19:07:00.024+09:00

From February 3^rd to April 4^th of this year I committed myself to a pilgrimage tour of various Buddhist sites in India, Nepal, China and Japan. It was by no means exhaustive as such a trip would take years to accomplish, but it was overall a very positive experience and I gained much insight as a result. For some amount of time I had sought to visit India and pay respects at the major holy sites. I also had to good fortune to have sufficient time off and finances to do it. On the morning of February 3^rd I departed Tokyo for Hong Kong. I was to transfer in Hong Kong and the airline allowed an extended stopover, so I decided to stay one week.

As fortunate would have it, a friend of mine named Venerable Huifeng was able to offer me a front-row ticket at Ajahn Brahmavamso's talk entitled “Buddhist Tales of the Supernatural” which was held at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. I have enjoyed watching Ajahn Brahm's talks on Youtube.com. I also have one of his books on meditation. In real life he is a superb speaker and skilled teacher.

While in Hong Kong I visited two temples worth noting. The first was the Temple of Ten-Thousand Buddhas 万佛寺 in the New Territories. You begin climbing the mountain and flanking both sides of the trail are countless statues of Arhats with various features and expressions. Some are even amusing to look at.

I was visiting the temple during China New Year, so there were a great many pilgrims paying their respects at the various shrines.

The other temple I visited was Po Lin Monastery (Jewel Lotus Temple) 寳蓮寺 on Lantau Island. To visit the temple I had to take a short ferry trip to Lantau Island which is a larger island to the west.

The monastery is famous for their great Buddha statue atop a hill.

Again, there were countless pilgrims visiting because it was Chinese New Years. It is tradition for Buddhists to visit temples and pray for good fortune and blessings in the coming year. The temple itself is well-kept and clearly connected to the tourism industry. There are a number of franchises including a Starbucks Coffee shop immediately outside the temple grounds. The temple also neighbours a cable car which offers a view of the airport on the opposite side of the island.

After spending a week in Hong Kong I proceeded to New Delhi, India. I will admit that I experienced a brief shock when I arrived. India is a nation with over a billion human beings and it suffers horrendous poverty. In the capital New Delhi one can see wealthy businessmen and turn the corner to see homeless cripples clearly dying of disease in the street. The lack of sanitation and heaps of garbage scattered everywhere you walk was also a bit unnerving.

Fortunately, I had a kind of refuge at Venerable Nakamura Gyōmyō's temple in the Kailash Colony area of New Delhi. It was there that we finished the last part of editing for his collection of short stories that I translated from Japanese into English. The book will be published sometime this summer hopefully. At the temple I met a number of visitors from different countries.

While in New Delhi I had the pleasure to visit Tibet House, which was founded by His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Unlike other museums in India which charge foreigners more than Indians, Tibet House has a set entrance fee that is the same for all. The museum has a number of aged Tibetan tanghkas, statues and bronze pieces that were brought with His Holiness to India when he escaped the Chinese invasion.

Not long after I found myself in Bodhgaya, which is where the Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree. To get there from Delhi Station one takes an overnight train and gets off at Gaya. From there one can hire one of many rickshaw drivers who drive to Bodhgaya in about twenty minutes or so. The core of the site is Mahabodhi Temple where the Bodhi Tree stands tall providing shade to the countless pilgrims from many nations who come to pay their respects and make offerings.

The temple grounds reflects the spread and extent of Buddhism in the world. In the evening when the heat fades the paths which circumambulate the Bodhi Tree fill with a sea of monks, nuns, lay devotees, tourists, touts and a few stray dogs.

In Bodh Gaya I had a very moving emotional experience when I first arrived. When I first entered the threshold of the temple my mind went silent and I became speechless. I wandered aimlessly for a bit in kind of daze before sitting down on a white stone bench and looking out towards the Bodhi Tree I wept tears for what reason I do not know. They were not tears of sorrow. I was overcome with a sense of accomplishment and finality. I felt from the core of my being that I had finally made it to the holiest site in the Buddhist world. It was coupled with a sense of relief and joy. I cannot explain it beyond that.

The town also hosts many other temples of different nations. There are Thai, Tibetan, Chinese, Bhutanese, Sri Lankan, Japanese and Burmese temples which provide lodging for visitors.

Unfortunately many professional swindlers and beggars also wander around the town preying on foreigners. I also had the misfortune of having my shoes stolen at Mahabodhi Temple. One is required to remove ones shoes before entering the inner part of the temple. I did this and later came back to find my shoes missing. They were far from being expensive shoes and the loss was of no consequence, but I had to walk barefoot to the market where a local boy selling second-hand sandals took advantage of my circumstances and charged me two-hundred rupees for a pair of used sandals! That he was selling used sandals also made me suspect the lot of them were stolen. Still, I was barefoot and needed some kind of footwear, so I bought a pair of beach sandals at the inflated price.

While in Bodh Gaya I also made use of the temple's pilgrimage tour package and was able to easily visit a number of significant locations in the area in a chartered van with a guide including the Shanti Stupa, Vulture's Peak, Nalanda University, Godakatora, the Xuanzang memorial and the Jeevak Mango Grove. If any reader visits Bodhgaya, I highly recommend purchasing this tour package. The package is provided for both tourists and pilgrims alike and is not for-profit. There are also no hidden costs and the vegetarian meals are included.

Vulture's Peak where Buddha once taught his disciples:

Godakatora, near the peak, is one place where Buddha spent time in meditation:

Xuanzang memorial hall:

Please visit the following link for more information:

http://www.prachinbharat.com/pligrimage.htm

While in Bodhgaya I was introduced to the local branch of Foguangshan 佛光山 which operates a free school and hostel for girls. I have some connections to the organization and it was a pleasure to speak with the venerable nuns who look after the temple and school.

One other thing worth noting about my trip is that I just happened by chance to encounter an old friend from a temple back in Canada. I was at an internet cafe and noticed a certain nun clad in maroon robes that looked quite familiar. Sure enough it was a friend from back home in Edmonton, Canada. We had no knowledge that the other was in Bodhgaya. Such a chance encounter was cause for joy and an afternoon spent drinking coffee catching up.

...to be continued in Part II.

Visiting Tōdai-ji 東大寺

2011-04-03T20:14:00.012+09:00

Tōdai-ji 東大寺 is a temple complex of prime historical importance in Nara, Japan. It was founded in the eighth century under Emperor Shōmu (701-756).

(Click images for larger view)

I would consider it the Nalanda University of Japan in that it housed for centuries numerous scholars and practitioners of various Buddhist schools. In the present day it is a popular tourist attraction, but still maintains an invaluable library and continues to attract faithful Buddhists.

One unique feature of the site and surrounding areas are the herds of tame deer.

These deer are said to be wild, but are quite fine with humans petting them. They also enjoy being fed regularly by tourists. The deer freely roam around Nara and are well-treated by the locals and visitors. They are said to be messengers of the kami and as such enjoy a comfortable life within the city.

Following classical Chinese custom the main temple faces south towards a gate with three entryways. Here the sign above reads Great Kegon Temple.

Within the gate on the left and right sides are giant dharma guardians carved from wood.

As one approaches the Daibutsu-den 大仏殿 or main temple the size of the building becomes clear. While the temple itself dates back to the 8th century, the main building was rebuilt twice due to severe fire damage. The present structure was completed in 1709.

Within the main temple one stands before a towering image of Vairocana Buddha, otherwise known as the 'cosmic Buddha'.

On the statue's right side one finds the Bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha 虛空藏, who is the guardian of the treasury of all wisdom and achievement.

Taking a few steps further one sees Virūpākṣa 廣目天王, the guardian of the west who rules over nāgas (serpents or dragons) and pūtanas (a kind of demon or ghost that is said to cause fevers). Said to be an epithet of Śiva.

On Vairocana's immediate left side is the Bodhisattva Cintāmaṇi-cakra-Avalokiteśvara 如意輪觀音, who is said to save beings with a wish granting jewel and the dharma-wheel.

Finally on the far right one finds Vaiśravaṇa 多聞天王, who is guardian of the north and looks over yakṣas and rākṣasas. The two dharma guardians present in the temple are two of the four celestial kings (caturmahārājakāyikāḥ) charged with protecting the six heavens of the desire realm.

The images themselves are of superb quality and were clearly crafted by skilled hands. These kind of statues would have taken a lot of time and effort to complete. In prior ages such operations were funded by the state which facilitated their pefection.

Besides serving as a core facility for pilgrims to visit and pray at, Tōdai-ji has also in history served as an education facility. Gyōnen 凝然 (1240-1321), one of the great Buddhist scholars and authors in Japanese history, resided here where he wrote many works. The temple complex and surrounding areas also served as a kind of meeting ground for various schools of Buddhism which no doubt facilitated discussion and debate.

Shingon Kōyasan Tōkyō Betsuin 真言宗高野山東京別院

2011-02-01T19:02:00.018+09:00

This afternoon I had an appointment in Shinagawa in Tōkyō so I decided to pay a visit at the nearby Shingon temple which I had been to before. The Kōyasan Tōkyō Betsuin is a branch temple of Kōyasan Shingon-shū. Shingon is the Japanese school of Vajrayāna that dates back to the founder Kūkai 空海 (774–835). Kōyasan itself is situated in Wakayama Prefecture, which is some distance away from Tōkyō. Fortunately they built a branch temple in Tōkyō.

(Click the photos below for a larger view.)

Here is a view of the front of the temple.

Here is another view looking down towards the main door.

Entering the main hall one sees Kūkai seated at the center behind the altar.

On the right side of the main hall there is a statue of Yamarāja. One will recall that Yama is also present in classical Indian mythology. In the Vedas he is the god of the dead. The departed spirits are said to dwell with him. He was the son of the sun and had a twin sister Yamuna or otherwise known as Yamī. Some say they were the first human pair. In later mythology he came to be one of eight Lokapāla, the guardian of the south, judge of the dead and ruler of Yamadevaloka. In contrast to these ideas, in the Buddhist mythology he is said to be the regent of the Nārakas and residing in a palace of copper and iron in the south of Jambudvīpa.

The main altar has numerous Bodhisattvas and deities including Kṣitigarbha, Rāga-rāja 愛染明王, Kūkai, Acala 不動明王 and Avalokiteśvara. Here is Rāga-rāja.

The quality of the photo is poor because I was unable to get closer, but here is an image of what the deity usually looks like.

He is a vidyārāja 明王 or luminous king which is basically a deity in esoteric Buddhism who is a manifestation or messenger of Buddha Vairocana's wrath against evil beings. His true identity is Mahāvairocana 大日如來 or Vajragarbha-bodhisattva 金剛薩埵. His name Rāga-rāja literally means "King of Love". This is because of his great love for the Buddha who also protects him. He also loves all sentient beings and works for their benefit. He is usually portrayed as having six arms and three faces displaying anger while holding a bow and arrow.

The other vidyārāja is Acala.

Again, the quality of the photo is not so good, so let us look at a better one.

Acala is the chief of the five vidyārāja. His appearance is awesome, fierce and frightens evil beings. He holds a sword which symbolizes wisdom, a noose and a thunderbolt. He is youthful in appearance, strong and has long hair thrown over his left shoulder. He is quite a prominent esoteric Buddhist deity in Japan.

Encircling the main shrine are portraits of the prominent patriarchs in the Shingon lineage. Here is Nāgabodhi 龍智.

Nāgabodhi is said to have been a South Indian monk who was initiated into esoteric practises by Nāgārjuna in the 2nd or 3rd century. This is also said to be the case in Tibetan traditions.

Next to Nāgabodhi is Amoghavajra 不空金剛.

Amoghavajra (705–774) was a prominent translator and influential Buddhist leader during the Tang Dynasty. He was born in Samarkand. His father was Indian and his mother Sogdian. Following his father's death he travelled to China at the age of ten and in 719 he ordained under Vajrabodhi 金剛智. In 741 all foreign monks were expelled and so he travelled to Sri Lanka, South Asia and India to collect texts and finally returned to China in 746 with numerous texts in hand. Besides translating numerous texts, he found his services, such as tantric initiations, in demand by the state. Interestingly in 765 he conducted an elaborate ritual to repel an invading army of Uighurs and Tibetans who were set to attack the capital Chang'an. One of his prominent disciples was Huiguo 惠果, Kūkai's master. Kūkai wrote an epitaph for his master which can be read here.

Here is another view of the altar.

The temple is really quite beautiful and well-kept. You can see the location of it here on Google Maps. Unfortunately in Japan most major temples are well outside of Tōkyō, but there are still a few temples in the metropolis worth visiting.